Wikipedia

Hindi

This article is about Modern Standard Hindi. For other uses, seeHindi (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withHinduorSindhi.

Modern Standard Hindi,(आधुनिक मानक हिन्दी,Ādhunik Mānak Hindī) commonly referred to asHindi,is thestandardised varietyof theHindustani languagewritten inDevanagari script.It is theofficial languageofIndiaalongsideEnglishand thelingua francaofNorth India.Hindi is considered aSanskritisedregister[9]of theHindustani language,which itself is based primarily on theKharibolidialect ofDelhiand neighbouring areas.[10][11][12]It is anofficial languagein nine states and threeunion territoriesand an additional official language in three other states.[13][14][15][16]Hindi is also one of the 22scheduled languages of the Republic of India.[17]

Hindi
हिन्दी
The word "Hindi" inDevanagariscript
Pronunciation[ˈɦɪndiː]
Native toIndia
RegionHindi Belt(Western Uttar Pradesh,Delhi)
Total speakersL1:350 million speakers of Hindi and various related languages who reported their language as 'Hindi' (2011 census)[1][2]
L2:260 million (2020)[2]
Early forms
Signed Hindi
Official status
Official language in
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated byCentral Hindi Directorate[8]
Language codes
ISO 639-1hi
ISO 639-2hin
ISO 639-3hin
hin-hin
Glottologhind1269
Linguasphere59-AAF-qf
Distribution of L1 self-reported speakers of Hindi in India as per the 2011 Census

Hindi is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as BazaarHindustaniorHaflong Hindi).[13][14]Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as "Hindi" but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other nearby languages, such asAwadhiandBhojpuri.Such languages includeFiji Hindi,which has an official status inFiji,[18]andCaribbean Hindustani,which is spoken inSuriname,Trinidad and Tobago,andGuyana.[19][20][21][22]Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi ismutually intelligiblewith standardUrdu,another recognised register of Hindustani, as both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary base derived fromPrakrit(a descendant of Sanskrit).[23][24][25][26]

Hindi is thefourth most-spoken first languagein the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English.[27]If counted together with the mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.[28][29]According to reports ofEthnologue(2022, 25th edition) Hindi is thethird most-spoken languagein the world includingfirstandsecond languagespeakers.[30]

Hindi is the fastest growinglanguage of India,followed byKashmiriin the second place, withMeitei(officially calledManipuri) as well asGujarati,in the third place, andBengaliin the fourth place, according to the2011 census of India.[31]

Terminology

The termHindīoriginally was used to refer to inhabitants of theIndo-Gangetic Plain.It was borrowed fromClassical PersianهندیHindī(Iranian Persianpronunciation:Hendi), meaning "of or belonging toHind(India) "(hence," Indian ").[32]

Another nameHindavī(हिन्दवी) orHinduī(हिन्दुई) (fromPersian:هندوی"of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people" ) was often used in the past, for example byAmir Khusrauin his poetry.[33][34]

The terms"Hindi"and"Hindu"trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from theSanskritnameSindhu(सिन्धु), referring to theIndus River.The Greek cognates of the same terms are "Indus"(for the river) and"India"(for the land of the river).[35][36]

The termModern Standard Hindiis commonly used to specifically refer the modern literary Hindi language, as opposed to colloquial and regional varieties that are also referred to asHindiin a wider sense.[37]

History

Further information:History of Hindustani

Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form ofVedic Sanskrit,throughShauraseni PrakritandŚauraseni Apabhraṃśa(from Sanskritapabhraṃśa"corrupt" ), which emerged in the 7th century CE.[38]

The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:[39]

  • Compensatory lengtheningof vowels precedinggeminateconsonants, sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation: Skt.hasta"hand" > Pkt.hattha>hāth
  • Loss of all word-final vowels:rātri"night" >rattī>rāt
  • Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-):bandha"bond" >bā̃dh
  • Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected inschwa deletion):susthira"firm" >sutthira>suthrā
  • Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus:apara"other" >avara>aur
  • Final-mto-ṽ:grāma"village" >gāma>gāṽ
  • Intervocalic-ḍ-to-ṛ-or-l-:taḍāga"pond" >talāv,naḍa"reed" >nal.
  • v>b:vivāha"marriage" >byāh

Hindustani

During the period ofDelhi Sultanate,which covered most of today's north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh[40]and which resulted in thecontact of Hindu and Muslim cultures,theSanskritandPrakritbase of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords fromPersian,evolving into the present form of Hindustani.[41][42][43][44][45][46]Hindi achieved prominence in India after it became the official language of theimperial courtduring the reign ofShah Jahan.[47]It is recorded that EmperorAurangzebspoke inHindvi.[48]The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during theIndian Independence movement,[49][50]and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,[51]which is reflected in theHindustani vocabularyofBollywoodfilms and songs.[52][53]

Standard Hindi is based on theDelhi dialect,[38]the vernacular ofDelhiand the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige languages such asAwadhiandBraj.It developed by extractingPersianandArabicwords from the Hindustani language and replacing withSanskritwords,.[54]Modern Hindi became a literary language in the 18th century. Earliest examples could be found asPrēm SāgarbyLallu Lal,Batiyāl Pachīsīof Sadal Misra, andRānī Kētakī Kī KahānīofInsha Allah Khanwhich were published inDevanagari scriptduring the early 19th century.[55]

John Gilchristwas principally known for his study of theHindustani language,which was adopted as thelingua francaof northern India (including what is now present-dayPakistan) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authoredAn English-Hindustani Dictionary,A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language,The Oriental Linguist,and many more. Hislexiconof Hindustani was published in thePerso-Arabic script,Nāgarī script,and inRoman transliteration.In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form.[56]In 1881,Biharaccepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.[57]However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state.[58]

Independent India

After independence, the Government of India instituted the following conventions:[original research?]

  • Standardisation of grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in 1958 asA Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi.[59]
  • Standardisation of the orthography, using theDevanagariscript, by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing, to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters, and introducing diacritics to express sounds from other languages.

On 14 September 1949, theConstituent Assembly of Indiaadopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as theofficial language of the Republic of Indiareplacing the previous usage of Hindustani in the Perso-Arabic script in theBritish Indian Empire.[60][61][62]To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notablyBeohar Rajendra Simhaalong withHazari Prasad Dwivedi,Kaka Kalelkar,Maithili Sharan GuptandSeth Govind Daswho even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.[63]Now, it is celebrated asHindi Day.[64]

Official status

India

Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Union. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:

(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.[19]
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.[65]

Article 351of theIndian constitutionstates:

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351),[66]with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to theimposition of Hindion non-native speakers, especially inSouth India(such asthose in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.[67]

Article 344 (2b)stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for the progressive use of Hindi language and impose restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states:Bihar,Chhattisgarh,Haryana,Himachal Pradesh,Jharkhand,Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan,Uttar PradeshandUttarakhand.[68]Hindi is an official language ofGujarat,along withGujarati.[69]It acts as an additional official language ofWest Bengalin blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.[70][71][72]Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the followingUnion Territories:Delhi,Andaman and Nicobar IslandsandDadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate.[73][74][75]In 2010, theGujarat High Courtclarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.[76][77]

Fiji

OutsideAsia,theAwadhi language(an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence fromBhojpuri,Bihari languages,FijianandEnglishis spoken in Fiji.[78][79]It is an official language inFijias per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji,[80]where it referred to it as "Hindustani"; however, in the2013 Constitution of Fiji,it is simply called "Fiji Hindi"as the official language.[81]It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.[78]

Nepal

Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people inNepalaccording to the2011 Nepal census,and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.[82]A Hindi proponent, Indian-bornParamananda Jha,was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies, and there was a general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept "inactive" as vice-president. An "angry" Jha said, "I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English."[83]

South Africa

Hindi is a protected language inSouth Africa.According to theConstitution of South Africa,thePan South African Language Boardmust promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.[6]According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them – of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline.[84]

United Arab Emirates

Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in theEmirate of Abu Dhabi.[7]As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue.[85]

Geographical distribution

Hindi is thelingua francaofnorthern India(which contains theHindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English.[65]

InNortheast Indiaa pidgin known asHaflong Hindihas developed as alingua francafor the people living inHaflong,Assamwho speak other languages natively.[86]InArunachal Pradesh,Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.[87]

Hindi is quite easy to understand for manyPakistanis,who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.[88]

A sizeable population inAfghanistan,especially inKabul,can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence ofBollywoodfilms, songs and actors in the region.[89][90]

Hindi is also spoken by a large population ofMadheshis(people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) ofNepal.Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the largeIndian diasporawhich hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt" of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like theUnited States of America,the United Kingdom, theUnited Arab Emirates,Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji andMauritius,where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million inNepal;863,077 in theUnited States of America;[91][92]450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji;[78]250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname;[93]100,000 inUganda;45,800 in the United Kingdom;[94]20,000 inNew Zealand;20,000 inGermany;26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago;[93]3,000 inSingapore.

Comparison with Standard Urdu

Main articles:Hindi–Urdu controversy,Hindustani phonology,andHindustani grammar

Linguistically,Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.[95]Both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.[23][96][24]However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more directtatsamaSanskrit-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in thePerso-Arabicscript and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.[97]Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar,[12][23][96]a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language,Hindustanior Hindi-Urdu.[95][12][23][11]Hindi is the most commonly used scheduled language in India and isone of the two official languages of the union,[98]the other being English. Urdu is thenational languageandlingua francaofPakistanand isone of 22 scheduled languages of India,also having official status inUttar Pradesh,Jammu and Kashmir,Delhi,Telangana,[99]Andhra Pradesh[100]andBihar.[101]

Script

Main article:Devanagari

Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, anabugida.Devanagari consists of 11vowelsand 33consonantsand is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to markschwa deletionin spoken Standard Hindi.[102]

Romanisation

Main article:Devanagari transliteration

TheGovernment of IndiausesHunterian transliterationas its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such asIAST,ITRANSandISO 15919.

Romanised Hindi,also calledHinglish,is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis ofYouTubecomments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanised Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% inDevanagariHindi.[5]

Phonology

Consonants
IPA Examples Devanagari representation English approximation
Hindi Urdu ISO 15919
b बीस بیس bīs ब् cabbie
bʱ भालू بھالو bhālū भ् clubhouse
d[103] दाल دال dāl द् the
dʱ[103] धूप دھوپ dhūp ध् adhere (but dental)
dʒ जान جان jān ज् budging
dʒʱ झड़ना جھڑنا jhaṛnā झ् hedgehog
ɖ[103] डालना ڈالنا ḍālnā ड् Americanbird
ɖʱ[103] ढक्कन ڈھکّن ḍhakkan ढ् American birdhouse
f ख़िलाफ़ خلاف k͟hilāf फ़् fuss
ɡ गोल گول gol ग् ago
ɡʱ घर گھر ghar घ् loghouse
ʔ[104] एतबार اعتبار iʻtibār[a] The pause in"uh-oh!",butter "bu'er "(t-glottalizing dialects)
ɣ[106] बाग़ باغ bāġ ग़् Similar to the French R
ɦ हम ہم ham ह् ahead
हुक्म حکم h̤ukm ह्
j याद یاد yād य् yuck
k कमज़ोर کمزور kamzor क् scab
kʰ खाल کھال khāl ख् cab
l लब لب lab ल् leaf
m मगर مگر magar म् much
n नहीं نہیں nahī̃ न् panther
ɳ[107] किरण کرن kiraṇ ण् American burn
ŋ रंग رن٘گ raṅg ङ् or bang
p पल پل pal प् spot
pʰ फल پھل phal फ् pot
q[106] क़रीब قریب qarīb क़् somewhat likecaught
r[108] रस رس ras र् Trilledring
ज़र्रा ذرّہ zarra र्
ɾ[108] ज़रा ذرا zarā र् American atom
ɽ लड़ना لڑنا laṛnā ड़ American garter
ɽʱ पढ़ाई پڑھائی paṛhāī ढ़ no English equivalent
s सब سب sab स् sun
साफ़ صاف s̤āf
साबित ثابت s̱ābit
ʂ[107] नष्ट نشٹ naṣṭ ष् shrew
ʃ काश کاش kāś श् shoe
t[103] तालाब تالاب tālāb त् similar to outthink, Spanishtomar
लतीफ़ा لطیفہ lat̤īfā
tʰ[103] थैला تھیلا thailā थ् tub (but dental)
tʃ चोर چور cor च् catch
tʃʰ छोड़ना چھوڑنا choṛnā छ् achoo
ʈ[103] टमाटर ٹماٹر ṭamāṭar ट् stub (but retroflex)
ʈʰ[103] ठंड ٹھنڈ ṭhanḍ ठ् tub (but retroflex)
ʋ[109] वर्ज़िश ورزش varziś व् vat
w[109] पकवान پكوان pakvān व् well
x[106] ख़राब خراب k͟harāb ख़् Scottishloch
z[106] काग़ज़ کاغذ kāġaz ज़् zoo
ʒ[106] अझ़दहा اژدہا aždahā झ़् pleasure
Vowels
IPA Examples Devanagari representation English approximation
Hindi Urdu ISO 15919
aː काम کام kām आ or ा father
eː जेब جیب jeb ए or े mail
ɛ[110] रहना رہنا rêhnā ऐ or ै pen
ɛː कैसा کیسا kaisā ऐ or ै fairy
ə कल کَل kal अ about
ɪ जितना جِتنا jitnā इ or ि sit
iː जीतना جیتنا jītnā ई or ी seat
oː बोलो بولو bolo ओ or ो grow
ɔː कौन کَون kaun औ or ौ job
ʊ उन اُن un उ or ु book
uː ऊन اُون ūn ऊ or ू moon
◌̃ हँस ہن٘س ham̐s ँ nasal vowel faun
([ãː,õː],etc.)
मैं مَیں maī̃
Suprasegmentals
IPA Example Notes
ˈ◌ [ˈbaːɦər] stress
(placed before stressed syllable)
◌ː [ˈʊtːəɾpɾəˈdeːʃ] doubled consonant
(placed after doubled consonant)

Vocabulary

Further information:Hindustani etymologyandList of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi

Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:

  • Tatsam(तत्समtransl.  "same as that") words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence of final case inflections).[111]They include words inherited from Sanskrit viaPrakritwhich have survived without modification (e.g. Hindiनामnām/ Sanskritनामnāma,"name",[112]as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g.प्रार्थनाprārthanā,"prayer" ).[113]Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit. Amongst nouns, thetatsamword could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
  • Ardhatatsam(अर्धतत्समtransl.  "semi-tatsama") words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed. (e.g. Hindiसूरजsūrajfrom Sanskritसूर्यsūrya)
  • Tadbhav(तद्भवtransl.  "born of that") words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g. Sanskritकर्मkarma,"deed" becomesShauraseni Prakritकम्मkamma,and eventually Hindiकामkām,"work" ) and are spelled differently from Sanskrit.[111]
  • Deshaj(देशजtransl.  "of the country") words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category areonomatopoeticwords or ones borrowed from local non-Indo-Aryan languages.
  • Videshī(विदेशीtransl.  "foreign") words: These include allloanwordsfrom non-indigenous languages. The most frequent source languages in this category arePersian,Arabic,EnglishandPortuguese.Examples areक़िलाqila"fort" from Persian,कमेटीkameṭīfrom Englishcommittee.

Hindi also makes extensive use ofloan translation(calqueing) and occasionallyphono-semantic matchingofEnglish.[114]

Prakrit

Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary fromShauraseni Prakrit,in the form oftadbhavawords.[24]This process usually involvescompensatory lengtheningof vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrittīkṣṇa> Prakrittikkha> Hinditīkhā.

Sanskrit

Much of Standard Hindi's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit astatsamborrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced byneologismscompoundingtatsamwords, is calledŚuddh Hindi(pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.

Excessive use oftatsamwords sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in Hindustani, causing difficulties in pronunciation.[115]

As a part of the process ofSanskritisation,new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms arecalquesof English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such asdūrbhāṣ"telephone", literally "far-speech" anddūrdarśan"television", literally "far-sight" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings(ṭeli)fonandṭīvī.[116]

Persian

Hindi also features significantPersianinfluence, standardised from spokenHindustani.[97][37][page needed]Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific toIslam(e.g.Muhammad,Islām) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under theDelhi SultanateandMughal Empire,Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely theizafat,were assimilated into Hindi.[117]

The status of Persian language then and thus its influence, is also visible in Hindiproverbs:

हाथ कंगन को आरसी क्या,
पढ़े लिखे को फ़ारसी क्या।

Hāth kaṅgan ko ārsī kyā,
Paṛhe likhe ko Fārsī kyā.

What is mirror to a hand with bangles,
What is Persian to a literate.

The emergence of Modern Standard Hindi in the 19th century went along with the Sanskritisation of its vocabulary,[118]leading to a marginalisation of Persian vocabulary in Hindi, which continued afterPartitionwhen the Indian government co-opted the policy of Sanskritisation. However, many Persian words (e.g.bas"enough",khud"self" ) have remained entrenched in Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used inUrdu poetrywritten in the Devanagari script. Many words borrowed from Persian in turn were loanwords from Arabic (e.g.muśkil"difficult",havā"air",x(a)yāl"thought",kitāb"book" ).

Loanwords from Persian derived from Arabic[119][better source needed]
Perso-Arabic word Hindi word Gloss
وقتwaqt वक़्तvaqt time
قميصqamīṣ क़मीज़qamīz shirt
كتابkitāb किताबkitāb book
نصيبnaṣīb नसीबnasīb destiny
كرسيkursiyy कुर्सीkursī chair
حسابḥisāb हिसाबhisāb calculation
قانونqānūn क़ानूनqānūn law
خبرḵabar ख़बरxabar news
دنياdunyā दुनियाduniyā world
  • क़ानून ultimately comes from the Greek κανών (kanōn).
  • क़मीज़ ultimately comes from the Latin "camisia" pronunciation reinforced by Portuguese "camisa".

Portuguese

Many Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries:

Hindi Meaning Portuguese
anānās(अनानास) pineapple ananás
pādrī(पाद्री) priest padre
bālṭī(बाल्टी) bucket balde
čābī(चाबी) key chave
girjā(गिर्जा) church igreja
almārī(अलमारी) cupboard armário
botal(बोतल) bottle botelha
aspatāl(अस्पताल) hospital Hospital
olandez(ओलंदेज़) Dutch holandês

Media

Literature

Main article:Hindi literature

Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, beingBhakti(devotional –Kabir,Raskhan);Śṛṇgār(beauty –Keshav,Bihari);Vīgāthā(epic); andĀdhunik(modern).

Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence ofBhakti movementand the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in othervarieties of Hindi,particularlyAvadhiandBraj Bhasha,but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Standard Hindi. During theBritish Raj,Hindustani became the prestige dialect.

Chandrakanta,written byDevaki Nandan Khatriin 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.[120]The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature wasMunshi Premchand,who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, orSāhityik,Hindi was popularised by the writings ofSwami Dayananda Saraswati,Bhartendu Harishchandraand others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.[citation needed]

TheDvivedī Yug( "Age of Dwivedi" ) in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named afterMahavir Prasad Dwivedi,who played a major role in establishing Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known asChāyāvād(shadow-ism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known asChāyāvādī.Jaishankar Prasad,Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala',Mahadevi VarmaandSumitranandan Pant,are the four majorChāyāvādīpoets.

Uttar Ādhunikis the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of theChāyāvādīmovement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.

Internet

Hindi literature,music,andfilmhave all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.[121]Many Hindinewspapersalso offer digital editions.

Sample text

See also:Urdu § Sample text

The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights(by the United Nations):

Hindi in Devanagari Script
अनुच्छेद १(एक): सभी मनुष्य जन्म से स्वतन्त्र तथा मर्यादा और अधिकारों में समान होते हैं। वे तर्क और विवेक से सम्पन्न हैं तथा उन्हें भ्रातृत्व की भावना से परस्पर के प्रति कार्य करना चाहिए।
Transliteration (ISO)
Anucchēd 1 (ēk): Sabhī manuṣya janma sē svatantra tathā maryādā aur adhikārō̃ mē̃ samān hōtē haĩ. Vē tark aur vivēk sē sampanna haĩ tathā unhē̃ bhrātr̥tva kī bhāvanā sē paraspar kē pratī kārya karnā cāhiē.
Transcription (IPA)
[ənʊtːʃʰeːdeːk|səbʰiːmənʊʂjədʒənməseːsʋət̪ənt̪ɾət̪ətʰaːməɾjaːd̪aːɔːɾəd̪ʰɪkaːɾõːmẽːsəmaːnhoːteːhɛ̃ː‖ʋeːt̪əɾkɔːɾʋɪʋeːkseːsəmpənːəhɛ̃ːt̪ətʰaːʊnʰẽːbʰɾaːtɾɪt̪ʋəkiːbʰaːʋənaːseːpəɾəspəɾkeːpɾət̪iːkaːɾjəkəɾnaːtʃaːhɪeː‖]
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1 (one)–All humans birth from independent and dignity and rights in equal are. They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1–All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity.

See also

Notes

  1. ^Urdu transliteration. The Hindi variant is usually written as एतबार (etbār).Rekhta Dictionarytransliterates this term as ए'तिबार (e'tibār) in Devanagari.[105]

References

  1. ^"Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength - 2011"(PDF).Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India.29 June 2018.
  2. ^abHindiatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)
  3. ^abHindustani (2005).Keith Brown(ed.).Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics(2 ed.). Elsevier.ISBN0-08-044299-4.
  4. ^Gangopadhyay, Avik (2020).Glimpses of Indian Languages.Evincepub publishing. p. 43.ISBN9789390197828.
  5. ^abPalakodety, Shriphani; KhudaBukhsh, Ashiqur R.; Jayachandran, Guha (2021),"Low Resource Machine Translation",Low Resource Social Media Text Mining,SpringerBriefs in Computer Science, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 7–9,doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5625-5_5,ISBN978-981-16-5624-8,S2CID244313560,retrieved24 September2022
  6. ^ab"Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions".www.gov.za.Retrieved6 December2014.
  7. ^ab"Abu Dhabi includes Hindi as third official court language".The Hindu.10 February 2019 – via www.thehindu.com.
  8. ^"About Us".Central Hindi Directorate.Archived fromthe originalon 4 May 2012.Retrieved18 February2014.
  9. ^"The Constitution of India".lawmin.nic.in.Archived fromthe originalon 2 April 2012.Retrieved21 March2012.
  10. ^"About Hindi-Urdu".North Carolina State University.Archived fromthe originalon 15 August 2009.Retrieved9 August2009.
  11. ^abBasu, Manisha (2017).The Rhetoric of Hindutva.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-14987-8.Urdu, like Hindi, was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Delhi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals.
  12. ^abcPeter-Dass, Rakesh (2019).Hindi Christian Literature in Contemporary India.Routledge.ISBN978-1-00-070224-8.Two forms of the same language, Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi (Urdu) had identical grammar, shared common words and roots, and employed different scripts.
  13. ^abKawoosa, Vijdan Mohammad (22 November 2018)."How languages intersect in India".Hindustan Times.Archivedfrom the original on 15 October 2022.
  14. ^ab"How many Indians can you talk to?".Hindustan Times.Archivedfrom the original on 16 December 2019.Retrieved22 December2019.
  15. ^Saravanan, Depak (9 October 2018)."Hindi and the North-South divide".Deccan Herald.Archivedfrom the original on 23 November 2022.
  16. ^Pillalamarri, Akhilesh."India's Evolving Linguistic Landscape".The Diplomat.Archivedfrom the original on 1 June 2019.Retrieved22 December2019.
  17. ^"PART A Languages specified in the Eighth Schedule (Scheduled Languages)".Census of India.Archived fromthe originalon 29 October 2013.
  18. ^"How Hindi travelled to these five countries from India".The Indian Express.14 September 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2022.
  19. ^ab"Sequence of events with reference to official language of the Union".Department of Official Language.Archived fromthe originalon 2 August 2011.
  20. ^"रिपब्लिक ऑफ फीजी का संविधान (Constitution of the Republic of Fiji, the Hindi version)".Fiji Government.Archived fromthe originalon 1 November 2013.
  21. ^"Caribbean Languages and Caribbean Linguistics"(PDF).University of the West Indies Press.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 December 2016.Retrieved16 July2016.
  22. ^Richard K. Barz (8 May 2007). "The cultural significance of Hindi in Mauritius".South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies.3:1–13.doi:10.1080/00856408008722995.
  23. ^abcdGube, Jan; Gao, Fang (2019).Education, Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context.Springer Publishing.ISBN978-981-13-3125-1.The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology and grammar (Lust et al. 2000).
  24. ^abcChatterji, Suniti Kumar; Siṃha, Udaẏa Nārāẏana; Padikkal, Shivarama (1997).Suniti Kumar Chatterji: a centenary tribute.Sahitya Akademi.ISBN978-81-260-0353-2.High Hindi written in Devanagari, having identical grammar with Urdu, employing the native Hindi or Hindustani (Prakrit) elements to the fullest, but for words of high culture, going to Sanskrit. Hindustani proper that represents the basic Khari Boli with vocabulary holding a balance between Urdu and High Hindi.
  25. ^Yoon, Bogum; Pratt, Kristen L., eds. (15 January 2023).Primary Language Impact on Second Language and Literacy Learning.Lexington Books. p. 198.In terms of cross-linguistic relations, Urdu's combinations of Arabic-Persian orthography and Sanskrit linguistic roots provides interesting theoretical as well as practical comparisons demonstrated in table 12.1.
  26. ^"Ties between Urdu & Sanskrit deeply rooted: Scholar".The Times of India.12 March 2024.Retrieved8 May2024.The linguistic and cultural ties between Sanskrit and Urdu are deeply rooted and significant, said Ishtiaque Ahmed, registrar, Maula Azad National Urdu University during a two-day workshop titled "Introduction to Sanskrit for Urdu medium students". Ahmed said a substantial portion of Urdu's vocabulary and cultural capital, as well as its syntactic structure, is derived from Sanskrit.
  27. ^Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), inNationalencyklopedin.Asterisks mark the2010 estimatesArchived11 November 2012 at theWayback Machinefor the top dozen languages.
  28. ^Gambhir, Vijay (1995).The Teaching and Acquisition of South Asian Languages.University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0-8122-3328-5.The position of Hindi-Urdu among the languages of the world is anomalous. The number of its proficient speakers, over three hundred million, places it in third of fourth place after Mandarin, English, and perhaps Spanish.
  29. ^"Hindustani".Columbia University Press.Archivedfrom the original on 29 July 2017 – via encyclopedia.com.
  30. ^"What are the top 200 most spoken languages?".Ethnologue (Free All).Retrieved31 March2023.
  31. ^—R, Aishwaryaa (6 June 2019)."What census data reveals about use of Indian languages".Deccan Herald.Retrieved16 November2023.
    —Pallapothu, Sravan (28 June 2018)."Hindi Added 100Mn Speakers In A Decade; Kashmiri 2nd Fast Growing Language".Indiaspend.com.Retrieved16 November2023.
    —IndiaSpend (2 July 2018)."Hindi fastest growing language in India, finds 100 million new speakers".Business Standard.Retrieved16 November2023.
    —Mishra, Mayank; Aggarwal, Piyush (11 April 2022)."Hindi grew rapidly in non-Hindi states even without official mandate".India Today.Retrieved16 November2023.
  32. ^Steingass, Francis Joseph (1892).A comprehensive Persian-English dictionary.London: Routledge & K. Paul. p. 1514. Archived fromthe originalon 21 June 2020.Retrieved13 February2018.
  33. ^Khan, Rajak."Indo-Persian Literature and Amir Khusro".Delhi University.Retrieved17 February2018.[permanent dead link]
  34. ^Losensky, Paul E. (15 July 2013).In the Bazaar of Love: The Selected Poetry of Amir Khusrau.Penguin UK.ISBN9788184755220– via Google Books.
  35. ^Mihir Bose (18 April 2006).The Magic of Indian Cricket: Cricket and Society in India.Routledge. pp. 1–3.ISBN978-1-134-24924-4.
  36. ^"India".Online Etymology Dictionary.
  37. ^abKachru, Yamuna (2006).Hindi.John Benjamins Publishing.ISBN9789027238122.
  38. ^ab"Brief History of Hindi".Central Hindi Directorate.Archived fromthe originalon 6 March 2014.Retrieved21 March2012.
  39. ^Masica, pp. 187–211
  40. ^Chapman, Graham. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire." Shared space: Divided space. Essays on conflict and territorial organization (1990): 106–134.
  41. ^"Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture – Rekhta Foundation".Google Arts & Culture.Retrieved25 February2020.The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.
  42. ^Matthews, David John; Shackle, C.; Husain, Shahanara (1985).Urdu literature.Urdu Markaz; Third World Foundation for Social and Economic Studies.ISBN978-0-907962-30-4.But with the establishment of Muslim rule in Delhi, it was the Old Hindi of this area which came to form the major partner with Persian. This variety of Hindi is called Khari Boli, 'the upright speech'.
  43. ^Dhulipala, Venkat (2000).The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis.University of Wisconsin–Madison.p. 27.Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.
  44. ^Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4.Tata Institute of Social Sciences.1943. p. 264.... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani,... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi.... Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.
  45. ^Mody, Sujata Sudhakar (2008).Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900–1920.University of California, Berkeley. p. 7....Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).
  46. ^Kesavan, B. S. (1997).History Of Printing And Publishing In India.National Book Trust, India. p. 31.ISBN978-81-237-2120-0.It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.
  47. ^Kumar, Uday.Status of Hindi in India.Readworthy.ISBN978-93-5018-149-2."During the period of Mughal Empire, Hindi was used as an additional official language" (Kansal 1991:48).
  48. ^Language Problem in India.Institute of Objective Studies. 1997. p. 138.ISBN9788185220413.
  49. ^Hans Henrich Hock(1991).Principles of Historical Linguistics.Walter de Gruyter. p. 475.ISBN978-3-11-012962-5.During the time of British rule, Hindi (in its religiously neutral, 'Hindustani' variety) increasingly came to be the symbol of national unity over against the English of the foreign oppressor. And Hindustani was learned widely throughout India, even in Bengal and the Dravidian south.... Independence had been accompanied by the division of former British India into two countries, Pakistan and India. The former had been established as a Muslim state and had made Urdu, the Muslim variety of Hindi–Urdu or Hindustani, its national language.
  50. ^Masica, Colin P. (1993).The Indo-Aryan Languages.Cambridge University Press. pp. 430 (Appendix I).ISBN978-0-521-29944-2.Hindustani - term referring to common colloquial base of HINDI and URDU and to its function as lingua franca over much of India, much in vogue during Independence movement as expression of national unity; after Partition in 1947 and subsequent linguistic polarization it fell into disfavor; census of 1951 registered an enormous decline (86–98 per cent) in no. of persons declaring it their mother tongue (the majority of HINDI speakers and many URDU speakers had done so in previous censuses); trend continued in subsequent censuses: only 11,053 returned it in 1971...mostly from S India; [see Khubchandani 1983: 90–1].
  51. ^Ashmore, Harry S. (1961).Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 11.Encyclopædia Britannica.p. 579.The everyday speech of well over 50,000,000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language, Hindustani.
  52. ^Tunstall, Jeremy (2008).The media were American: U.S. mass media in decline.Oxford University Press. p.160.ISBN978-0-19-518146-3.The Hindi film industry used the most popular street level version of Hindi, namely Hindustani, which included a lot of Urdu and Persian words.
  53. ^Hiro, Dilip (2015).The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan.PublicAffairs.p. 398.ISBN978-1-56858-503-1.Spoken Hindi is akin to spoken Urdu, and that language is often called Hindustani. Bollywood's screenplays are written in Hindustani.
  54. ^John Joseph Gumperz (1971).Language in Social Groups.Stanford University Press. p.53.ISBN978-0-8047-0798-5.Retrieved26 June2012.
  55. ^RAHMAN, TARIQ (2011).From Hindi to Urdu A Social and Political History.Karachi, Pakistan.: Oxford University Press. p. 41.
  56. ^Paul R. Brass (2005).Language, Religion and Politics in North India.iUniverse, Incorporated.ISBN9780595343942.
  57. ^Parthasarathy, Kumar, p.120
  58. ^"Bihar: The language tussle – Indiascope News – Issue Date: Jul 31, 19…".16 June 2022. Archived fromthe originalon 16 June 2022.
  59. ^Central Hindi Directorate (2011).A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi.
  60. ^Clyne, Michael (24 May 2012).Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations.Walter de Gruyter.ISBN9783110888140.
  61. ^Choudhry, Sujit; Khosla, Madhav; Mehta, Pratap Bhanu (12 May 2016).The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780191058615.
  62. ^Grewal, J. S. (8 October 1998).The Sikhs of the Punjab.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521637640.
  63. ^"हिन्दी दिवस विशेष: इनके प्रयास से मिला था हिन्दी को राजभाषा का दर्जा".8 September 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 11 September 2017.
  64. ^"Hindi Diwas celebration: How it all began".The Indian Express.14 September 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 8 February 2017.Retrieved7 February2017.
  65. ^ab"The Constitution of India"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 9 September 2014.
  66. ^"Rajbhasha"(PDF)(in Hindi and English). india.gov.in. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 31 January 2012.
  67. ^"The Official Languages Act, 1963 (as Amended, 1967) (Act No. 19 of 1963)".Department of Official Language.Archivedfrom the original on 16 December 2016.Retrieved9 June2016.
  68. ^"Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 50th report (July 2012 to June 2013)"(PDF).Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 July 2016.Retrieved26 December2014.
  69. ^Benedikter, Thomas (2009).Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India.LIT Verlag Münster. p. 89.ISBN978-3-643-10231-7.Archivedfrom the original on 25 April 2016.Retrieved13 June2018.
  70. ^Roy, Anirban (27 May 2011)."West Bengal to have six more languages for official use".India Today.Retrieved10 January2020.
  71. ^Roy, Anirban (28 February 2018)."Kamtapuri, Rajbanshi make it to list of official languages in".India Today.Archivedfrom the original on 30 March 2018.Retrieved16 March2019.
  72. ^Sen, Sumant (4 June 2019)."Hindi the first choice of people in only 12 States".The Hindu.
  73. ^Choudhury, Sushmita; Sharma, Rajesh (15 September 2021)."70 years on, India is still fighting over a national language".The Times of India.Retrieved19 March2022.
  74. ^Swaddle, The (12 June 2021)."Hindi Isn't India's National Language. Why Does the Myth Continue?".The Swaddle.Retrieved19 March2022.
  75. ^"Why Hindi isn't the national language".Firstpost.31 May 2019.Retrieved19 March2022.
  76. ^Khan, Saeed (25 January 2010)."There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court".The Times of India.Ahmedabad:The Times Group.Archivedfrom the original on 18 March 2014.Retrieved5 May2014.
  77. ^"Hindi, not a national language: Court".The Hindu.Ahmedabad:Press Trust of India.25 January 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 4 July 2014.Retrieved23 December2014.
  78. ^abc"Hindi, Fiji".Ethnologue.Archivedfrom the original on 11 February 2017.Retrieved17 February2017.
  79. ^"Fiji Hindi alphabet, pronunciation and language".www.omniglot.com.Archivedfrom the original on 8 June 2017.Retrieved22 June2017.
  80. ^"Section 4 of Fiji Constitution".servat.unibe.ch. Archived fromthe originalon 9 June 2009.Retrieved3 May2009.
  81. ^"Constitution of Fiji".Official site of the Fijian Government.Archived fromthe originalon 11 October 2016.Retrieved14 October2016.
  82. ^"Population Monograph of Nepal, Vol. 2"(PDF).Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014.Retrieved29 March2020.
  83. ^Nalankilli, Thanjai."Hindi in Nepal – An Analysis".Tamiltribune.com.Archived from the original on 18 March 2016.Retrieved17 December2022.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  84. ^Mesthrie, Rajend (1985).A history of the Bhojpuri (or "Hindi" ) language in South Africa.University of Cape Town(Doctoral Thesis).Retrieved17 December2022.
  85. ^"UAE introduces Hindi as third official language".Business Standard India.12 February 2019.Retrieved17 December2022.
  86. ^Kothari, Ria, ed. (2011).Chutnefying English: The Phenomenon of Hinglish.Penguin Books India. p. 128.ISBN9780143416395.
  87. ^Chandra, Abhimanyu."How Hindi became the language of choice in Arunachal Pradesh".Scroll.in.Archived fromthe originalon 11 December 2016.
  88. ^Gandapur, Khalid Amir Khan (19 September 2012)."Has Hindi become our national language?".The Express Tribune.Archived fromthe originalon 31 July 2019.Retrieved24 January2020.
  89. ^Hakala, Walter N. (2012)."Languages as a Key to Understanding Afghanistan's Cultures"(PDF).National Geographic.Retrieved13 March2018.In the 1980s and '90s, at least three million Afghans—mostly Pashtun—fled to Pakistan, where a substantial number spent several years being exposed to Hindi- and Urdu-language media, especially Bollywood films and songs, and being educated in Urdu-language schools, both of which contributed to the decline of Dari, even among urban Pashtuns.
  90. ^Krishnamurthy, Rajeshwari (28 June 2013)."Kabul Diary: Discovering the Indian connection".Gateway House: Indian Council on Global Relations.Retrieved13 March2018.Most Afghans in Kabul understand and/or speak Hindi, thanks to the popularity of Indian cinema in the country.
  91. ^"Hindi most spoken Indian language in US, Telugu speakers up 86% in 8 years".The Times of India.21 September 2018.
  92. ^"United States- Languages".Ethnologue.Archivedfrom the original on 11 February 2017.Retrieved17 February2017.
  93. ^abFrawley, p. 481
  94. ^"United Kingdom- Languages".Ethnologue.Archivedfrom the original on 1 February 2017.Retrieved17 February2017.
  95. ^ab"Hindi and Urdu are classified as literary registers of the same language".Archived fromthe originalon 2 June 2016.Retrieved1 June2016.
  96. ^abKuiper, Kathleen (2010).The Culture of India.Rosen Publishing.ISBN978-1-61530-149-2.Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language.
  97. ^abJain, Danesh; Cardona, George (2007).The Indo-Aryan Languages.Routledge.ISBN978-1-135-79711-9.The primary sources of non-IA loans into MSH are Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Turkic and English. Conversational registers of Hindi/Urdu (not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu) employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords, although in Sanskritized registers many of these words are replaced bytatsamaforms from Sanskrit. The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India. Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi/Urdu, in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another. The Arabic (and also Turkic) lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian, as a result of which a thorough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place, as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words. Moreover, although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian, and thence into Hindi/Urdu, examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi/Urdu.
  98. ^"THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE POLICY OF THE UNION".Department of Official Language - Governemtn of India.Retrieved7 November2023.
  99. ^Javaid, Arfa (23 June 2021) [18 June 2021]."List of Official Languages of Indian States and Union Territories".jagranjosh.com.
  100. ^"Bill recognising Urdu as second official language passed".The Hindu.23 March 2022.ISSN0971-751X.Retrieved4 March2023.
  101. ^Ahmed, Farzand (17 January 2014)."Decision to make Urdu second official language in Bihar provokes furore from Maithil Brahmins".India Today.Retrieved17 December2022.
  102. ^Bhatia, Tej K. (1987).A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition: Hindi-Hindustani Grammar, Grammarians, History and Problems.Brill.ISBN9789004079243.
  103. ^abcdefghHindi and Urdu contrast dental[t]and[d]with apical postalveolar[ʈ]and[ɖ](as well as aspirated variants). Both sets sound like/t/and/d/to most English speakers although the dental [t] and [d] are used in place of the English/θ/and/ð/for some speakers withth-stopping.
  104. ^In a number of words, theعand/orءis sometimes pronounced asʔin Urdu, which is typically not represented or pronounced in Hindi, except when the Urdu variant is transliterated into Hindi.
  105. ^"Meaning of etibar in English".Rekhta Dictionary.Retrieved18 March2023.
  106. ^abcdeMainly phonemes of Urdu. Hindi speakers may replace [x], [z], [ʒ], [ɣ] and [q] with [kʰ], [dʒ], [dʒʱ], [g] and [k] respectively.
  107. ^abMainly phonemes of Hindi. Urdu speakers usually replace [ɳ] and [ʂ] with [n] and [ʃ] respectively.
  108. ^ab/ɾ/can surface as a trill[r]in word-initial and syllable-final positions. Geminate/ɾː/is always a trill.
  109. ^ab[w]occurs as an allophone of[ʋ]when /वو/ is in an onglide position between an onset consonant and a following vowel while[ʋ],which may phonetically be[v],occurs otherwise.
  110. ^[ɛ]occurs as an allophone of/ə/near an/ɦ/that is surrounded on both sides by schwas. Usually, the second schwa becomes silent, which results in an[ɛ]preceding an/ɦ/.
  111. ^abMasica, p. 65
  112. ^Masica, p. 66
  113. ^Masica, p. 67
  114. ^Arnold, David; Robb, Peter (2013).Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader.Routledge. p. 79.ISBN9781136102349.
  115. ^Ohala, Manjari (1983).Aspects of Hindi Phonology.Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 38.ISBN9780895816702.
  116. ^Arnold, David; Robb, Peter (2013).Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader.Routledge. p. 82.ISBN9781136102349.
  117. ^Bhatia, Tej K.; Ritchie, William C. (2006).The Handbook of Bilingualism.John Wiley and Sons. p.789.ISBN9780631227359.
  118. ^King, Christopher R. (1994).One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India.New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  119. ^Khalife, Leyal (25 December 2016)."9 Hindi words that sound just like Arabic".Stepfeed.com.Retrieved16 December2022.
  120. ^"Stop outraging over Marathi – Hindi and English chauvinism is much worse in India".18 September 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 19 September 2015.
  121. ^"Hindi content consumption on internet growing at 94%: Google".The Economic Times. 18 August 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 15 February 2018.Retrieved14 February2018.

Bibliography

Dictionaries

Further reading

Hindi editionofWikipedia,the free encyclopedia
Look upCategory:Hindi languagein Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook forHindi.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindi&oldid=1236018112"