Thehistory of Chinaspans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in theYellow Rivervalley, which along with theYangtzebasin constitutes the geographic core of theChinese cultural sphere.China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. Thetraditional lensfor viewing Chinese history is thedynastic cycle:imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken threadmany thousands of years into the past,making it one of thecradles of civilization.At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as theTian Shan,theTarim Basin,and theHimalayas,as far north as theSayan Mountains,and as far south as thedelta of the Red River.
TheNeolithicperiod saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along theYellowandYangtzerivers. TheErlitou culturein thecentral plains of Chinais sometimes identified with theXia dynasty(3rd millennium BC) of traditionalChinese historiography.The earliest survivingwritten Chinesedates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed onoracle bones.Chinese bronze inscriptions,ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese includepoetry,divination,andrecords of official speeches.China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. Thecultureremembered by the earliestextant literatureis that of theZhou dynasty(c. 1046– 256 BC), China'sAxial Age,during which theMandate of Heavenwas introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such asConfucianism,Taoism,Legalism,andWuxing.
China wasfirst unitedunder a single imperial state byQin Shi Huangin 221 BC.Orthography,weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with theHan dynasty(202 BC – 220 AD), marking a critical period. A term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known asHan Chinese.The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period. Confucianism was officially sanctioned and itscore textswere edited into their received forms. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneousRoman Empire:mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards. China became known internationally for itssericulture.When the Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during whichBuddhismbegan to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, whileCalligraphy,art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere.
A period of unity began in 581 with theSui dynasty,which soon gave way to the long-livedTang dynasty(608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age. The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's only officially recognized empress,Wu Zetian,reigned during the dynasty's first century. Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors. "Tang people" is the other common demonym for the Han ethnic group. After the Tang fractured, theSong dynasty(960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development.Mechanical printingwas introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts arewood-block printsfrom this era. Song scientific advancement led the world, and theimperial examination systemgave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together inNeo-Confucianism.
Eventually, theMongol Empireconquered all of China, establishing theYuan dynastyin 1271. Contact with Europe began to increase during this time. Achievements under the subsequentMing dynasty(1368–1644) includeglobal exploration,fineporcelain,and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring theGrand CanalandGreat Wall.Three of the fourClassic Chinese Novelswere written during the Ming. TheQing dynastythat succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnicManchupeople. TheQianlongemperor (r. 1735–1796) commissioneda complete encyclopaediaof imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in theOpium Warsand subsequentunequal treaties.
The 1911Xinhai Revolution,led bySun Yat-senand others, created the modernRepublic of China.From 1927 to 1949, acostly civil warroiled between the Republican government underChiang Kai-shekand the Communist-alignedChinese Red Army,interrupted by the industrializedEmpire of Japaninvading the divided country until its defeat in the Second World War.
After theCommunistvictory,Mao Zedongproclaimed the establishment of thePeople's Republic of China(PRC) in 1949, with the Republic retreating to Taiwan. Both governments still claim sole legitimacy of the entire mainland area. The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed to this day. From 1966 to 1976, theCultural Revolutionin mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life. After his death, the government beganeconomic reformsunderDeng Xiaoping,and became the world'sfastest-growing major economy.[when?]China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades since its unification, until it was surpassed byIndiain 2023.
Prehistory
Paleolithic (1.7 Ma – 12 ka)
Thearchaic humanspecies ofHomo erectusarrived inEurasiasometime between 1.3 and 1.8million years ago(Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China.[1]The oldest of these is the southwesternYuanmou Man(Nguyên mưu nhân;inYunnan), dated toc.1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixedbushland-forest environment alongsidechalicotheres,deer,the elephantStegodon,rhinos,cattle, pigs, and thegiant short-faced hyena.[2]The better-knownPeking Man(Bắc kinh viên nhân;near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000BP,[1]was discovered in theZhoukoudiancave alongsidescrapers,choppers,and, dated slightly later, points,burins,and awls.[3]OtherHomo erectusfossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwesternLantian ManinShaanxi,as well minor specimens in northeasternLiaoningand southernGuangdong.[1]The dates of mostPaleolithic siteswere long debated but have been more reliably established based on modernmagnetostratigraphy:Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma,Xiaochangliangat 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma,Banshanat 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma.[4]Evidence of fire use byHomo erectusoccurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site ofXihoudu,Shanxi Province.[5]
The circumstances surrounding theevolutionofHomo erectusto contemporaryH. sapiensis debated; the three main theories include the dominant"Out of Africa" theory(OOA), theregional continuity modeland the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis.[1]Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered inFuyan CaveofDao County,Hunan.[6]The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinctAiluropoda baconipanda, theCrocuta ultimahyena, theStegodon,and thegiant tapir.[6]Evidence ofMiddle PalaeolithicLevalloistechnology has been found in the lithic assemblage ofGuanyindongCave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago.[7]
Neolithic
TheNeolithic Agein China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago.[8]Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia.[9]The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago.[10]Early evidence formilletagriculture in the Yellow River valley wasradiocarbon-datedto about 7000 BC.[11]TheJiahusite is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). AtDamaidiin Ningxia, 3,172cliff carvingsdating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes calledproto-writing,were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC,[12]Damaidi around 6000 BC,Dadiwanfrom 5800 BC to 5400 BC,[13]andBanpodating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites likeTaosiand theLiangzhu culturein the Yangtze delta.[10]The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as theYangshao culture(5000 BC to 3000 BC) and theLongshan culture(3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop. Fruit such aspeaches,cherriesandoranges,as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China.[9]
Bronze Age
Bronze artifacts have been found at theMajiayao culturesite (between 3100 and 2700 BC).[14][15]The Bronze Age is also represented at theLower Xiajiadian culture(2200–1600 BC)[16]site in northeast China.Sanxingduilocated in what is nowSichuanis believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of thestate of Shu,linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.[17][18]
Ferrous metallurgybegins to appear in the late 6th century in theYangtzevalley.[19]A bronze hatchet with a blade ofmeteoric ironexcavated near the city ofGaochenginShijiazhuang(nowHebei) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of theTibetan Plateauhas tentatively been associated with theZhang Zhung culturedescribed in early Tibetan writings.
Ancient China
Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang.[20]This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally.[21]
The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperorsYao,Shun,andYu.Traditionally, theabdication systemwas prominent in this period,[22]with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty.
Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)
TheXia dynasty(c. 2070– c. 1600 BC) is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes theBamboo AnnalsandSima Qian'sShiji(c. 91 BC). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site atErlitou(1900–1500 BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia.[23]In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts.[24]More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.[25]
Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)
Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600– c. 1046 BC). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations atErligang(modernZhengzhou). Findings have been found atYinxu(near modernAnyang,Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during theLate Shangperiod (c. 1250–1050 BC).[26]The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—theoracle bones,dating fromc. 1250– c. 1046 BC.[27]
A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty.[28]Throughout their reigns, according to theShiji,the capital city was moved six times.[29]The final and most important move was toYinduring the reign ofWu Dingc. 1250 BC.[30]The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.[28]
Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,[31]Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings atSanxingduisuggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to asChina proper.[32]
Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)
The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by theShang.A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou,King Wu,defeated the Shang at theBattle of Muye.They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region.[33]Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings.
The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of theMandate of Heavento legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty.[34]Like Shangdi, Heaven (tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China.[35]It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.
The Zhou established two capitalsZongzhou(near modernXi'an) andChengzhou(Luoyang), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into theYangtze Rivervalley.[33]
Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)
In 771 BC,King Youand his forces were defeated in theBattle of Mount Liby rebel states andQuanrongbarbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler,King Ping,inLuoyang,[36]: 4 beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famousSpring and Autumn Annals.The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds ofsettlement states,some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie forhegemony.The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time.[37]By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such asLaozi,ConfuciusandSun Tzulived during this chaotic period.
Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family andpartitioned the state between them.
TheHundred Schools of Thoughtofclassical Chinese philosophybegan blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements asConfucianism,Taoism,LegalismandMohismwere founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture.
Warring States period (476–221 BC)
After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th centuryBC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as theWarring Statesperiod. Though theZhouking nominally remained as such until 256BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power.
Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including theZuo Zhuanwithin theSpring and Autumn Annals(a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from theTsinghuacollection, dated to 305BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit,base-10 multiplication table.The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.[38]
As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modernSichuanandLiaoning), they were now to be governed under an administrative system ofcommanderiesandprefectures.This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneousshengandxian( "provinces" and "counties" ) of contemporary China.
The state ofQinbecame dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering theShucapital ofJinshaon the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually drivingChufrom its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse.[9]Its final expansion began during the reign ofYing Zheng,ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's firstemperor—known to history asQin Shi Huang.
Imperial China
Early imperial China
Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)
Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty (Tần triều) in 221 BC effectively formalised the region as a true empire for the first time in Chinese history, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to "Qin" (Tần) later evolving into the Western term "China".[39]To emphasise his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himselfShi Huangdi(ThủyHoàngĐế;"First Emperor" ); theHuangdititle, derived fromChinese mythology,became the standard for subsequent rulers.[40][a]Based inXianyang,the empire was a centralizedbureaucraticmonarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China.[42][43]In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36commanderies(Quận;jun),[b]made up ofcounties(Huyện;xian) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader.[46]
Many aspects of society were informed byLegalism,a state ideology promoted by the emperor and hischancellorLi Sithat was introduced at an earlier time byShang Yang.[47]In legal matters this philosophy emphasised mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments for crime, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade.[47]Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles (seal script) and metal currency (Ban Liang), all of which were standardized.[48][49]Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as ordering amass burning of books and the live burial of scholarsunder the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on thehistoricity of this event.[47]Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters byConfucianismfor social and moral beliefs and the five-elementWuxing(Ngũ hành) theories forcosmologicalthought.[50]
The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence.[51]Commoners, who made up over 90% of the population,[52]"suffered harsh treatment" according to the historianPatricia Buckley Ebrey,as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects.[53]This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around 4,250 miles (6,840 km) altogether.[54]Other major construction projects were assigned to the generalMeng Tian,who concurrentlyled a successful campaignagainst the northernXiongnupeoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops.[54][c]Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as theGreat Wall of Chinaand oversaw the building of a 500 miles (800 km) straight highway between northern and southern China.[56]The emperor also oversaw the construction of hismonumental mausoleum,which includes the well knownTerracotta Army.[57]
After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire.[58][59]
Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)
Western Han
The Han dynasty was founded byLiu Bang,who emerged victorious in theChu–Han Contentionthat followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. Agolden agein Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of theChina properand to areas far west.Confucianismwas officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now thedominant ethnic groupin modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language andwritten characters.
After theinitial laissez-faire policiesof EmperorsWenandJing,the ambitiousEmperor Wubrought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands.[60]As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society.Imperial Universitieswere established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the dynastywith government monopolies.
Right image:Reverse side of a Western-Hanbronze mirrorwith painted designs of a flower motif
Major military campaignswere launched to weaken the nomadicXiongnu Empire,limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led byZhang Qian,the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to thestates in the Tarim Basin,opened up theSilk Roadthat connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire.
Emperor Wu also dispatched aseries of military campaignsagainst theBaiyuetribes. The Han annexedMinyue in 135 BCand 111 BC,Nanyue in 111 BC,andDian in 109 BC.[61]Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south.[62]It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.[63]
After Emperor Wu the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Variousconsort clansexerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation ofWang Mang.
Xin dynasty
In AD 9 the usurperWang Mangclaimed that theMandate of Heavencalled for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of theYellow River;silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed inWeiyang Palaceby an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.
Eastern Han
Emperor Guangwureinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families atLuoyang,eastof the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed theEastern Han dynasty.With the capable administrations of EmperorsMingandZhang,former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. TheXiongnu Empirewasdecisively defeated.The diplomat and generalBan Chaofurther expanded the conquests across thePamirsto the shores of theCaspian Sea,[64]: 175 thus reopening theSilk Road,and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with thearrival of Buddhism.With extensive connections with the west, the first of severalRoman embassies to Chinawere recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.
The Eastern Han dynasty was one of themost prolific eras of science and technologyin ancient China, notably the historic invention ofpapermakingbyCai Lun,and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famouspolymathZhang Heng.
Six Dynasties
Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)
By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding betweenconsort clansandeunuchs.TheYellow Turban Rebellionbroke out in AD 184, ushering in an era ofwarlords.In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdomsdramatizes events of this period.
The warlordCao Caoreunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication ofEmperor Xian of Han,thus initiating theWeidynasty. Soon, Wei's rivalsShuandWuproclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families.
In 266, theJin dynastyoverthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived.
Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)
TheJin dynastyreunited China proper for the first time since the end of theHan dynasty,ending theThree Kingdomsera. However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by theWar of the Eight Princesand lost control of northern China afternon-Han Chinese settlers rebelledand capturedLuoyangandChang'an.In 317, the Jin princeSima Rui,based in modern-dayNanjing,became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin.
Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)
Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as theSixteen Kingdoms,most of which were founded byXiongnu,Xianbei,Jie,DiandQiangrulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of theTurks,Mongols,andTibetans.Many had, to some extent, been "sinicized"long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably theQiangand the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within theGreat Wallsince late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta.
Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)
In the early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to theLiu Song,Southern Qi,Liangand finallyChen.Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and usedJiankang(modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began tosinify.
In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by theNorthern Wei,a kingdom founded by theXianbei,a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into theEasternandWestern Wei,which then became theNorthern QiandNorthern Zhou.These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han.
Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whetherBuddhismshould be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists andTaoistshad become much more tolerant of each other.[65]
Mid-imperial China
Sui dynasty (581–618)
The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded byEmperor Wenin 581 in succession of theNorthern Zhou,the Sui went on to conquer theSouthern Chenin 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system ofThree Departments and Six Ministries,imperial examinationsfor selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems offubing systemof the army conscription and theequal-field systemof land distributions. These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state.Standardized coinagewas enforced throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, theGrand Canalwas constructed, linking the capitalsDaxing (Chang'an)andLuoyangto the wealthysoutheast region,and in another route, to the northeast border. TheGreat Wallwas also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of theKorean Peninsuladuring theGoguryeo–Sui Warfailed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led tothe fall of the dynasty.
Tang dynasty (618–907)
The Tang dynasty was agolden age of Chinese civilization,a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularlypoetry,and technology.Buddhismbecame the predominant religion for the common people.Chang'an(modernXi'an), the national capital, was thelargest city in the world during its time.[66]
The first emperor,Emperor Gaozu,came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor,Taizong,one of the greatestemperors in Chinese history.Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought neighboring states intoa tributary system.Military victories in theTarim Basinkept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such asGuangzhouconnected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging acosmopolitanculture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notablyJapan.Internally theGrand Canallinked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire.Xuanzang,a ChineseBuddhist monk,scholar, traveller, and translator travelled to India on his own and returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundredsarirarelics. "
The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy. The government was organized as "Three Departments and Six Ministries"to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were joined or replaced byscholar officialsselected byimperial examinations,setting patterns for later dynasties.
Under the Tang "equal-field system"all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to each family according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as thefubingsystem. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however,standing armieshad replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions granted exemptions.
The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of EmpressWu Zetian,the only officialempress regnantin Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign ofEmperor Xuanzong,who oversaw an empire that stretched from thePacificto theAral Seawith at least50 millionpeople. There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinesepoets,Li BaiandDu Fu.
At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, theAn Lushan Rebellionfrom 755 to 763 was a watershed event. War, disease, and economic disruptiondevastated the populationand drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known asjiedushi,gained increasingly autonomous status as the central government lost its ability to control them. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government came to rely heavily on itssalt monopoly.Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were lost for centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy.
In late Tang period the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fiercefactional strifeand corruptedeunuchsamassed immense power.Catastrophically, theHuang Chao Rebellion,from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of the southern portGuangzhouin 879 was followed by themassacreof most of its inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves.[68][69]By 881, both capitals,LuoyangandChang'an,fell successively. The reliance on ethnicHanandTurkicwarlordsin suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence. Consequently, the fall of the dynasty followingZhu Wen's usurpation led to anera of division.
In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them.[70]The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik.[71]The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin (Li Guochang) served the Tang dynasty in fighting against their fellow Turkic people in theUyghur Khaganate.In 839, when the Uyghur khaganate (Huigu) general Jueluowu ( quật la vật ) rose against the rule of then-reigningZhangxin Khan,he elicited the help from Zhuye Chixin by giving Zhuye 300 horses, and together, they defeated Zhangxin Khan, who then committed suicide, precipitating the subsequent collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate. In the next few years, when Uyghur Khaganate remnants tried to raid Tang borders, the Shatuo participated extensively in counterattacking the Uyghur Khaganate with other tribes loyal to Tang.[72]In 843, Zhuye Chixin, under the command of the Han Chinese officerShi Xiongwith Tuyuhun, Tangut and Han Chinese troops, participated in a raid against the Uyghur khaganate that led to the slaughter of Uyghur forces at Shahu mountain.[73]
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)
The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later)Liang,Tang,Jin,HanandZhou,rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later)Tang,JinandHanweresinicizedShatuo Turks,which ruled over an ethnic majority ofHan Chinesein the north. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the "Ten Kingdoms".
Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategicSixteen Prefectures(region along today'sGreat Wall) were ceded to the emergingKhitan Liao dynasty,which drastically weakened the defense ofChina properagainst northern nomadic empires. To the south, Vietnamgained lasting independenceafterbeing a Chinese prefectureformany centuries.With wars dominating in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup ofLater ZhougeneralZhao Kuangyin,and the establishment of theSong dynastyin 960, which eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms" and reunified China.
Late imperial China
Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)
In 960, the Song dynasty was founded byEmperor Taizu,with its capital established inKaifeng(then known asBianjing). In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most ofChina proper,while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied bysinicizednomadic empires.TheKhitanLiao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled overManchuria,Mongolia,and parts ofNorthern China.Meanwhile, in what are now the north-western Chinese provinces ofGansu,Shaanxi,andNingxia,theTanguttribes founded theWestern Xia dynastyfrom 1032 to 1227.
Aiming to recover the strategicsixteen prefectureslost in theprevious dynasty,campaignswere launched against theLiao dynastyin theearly Song period,which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liaocavalryswept over the exposedNorth China Plainand reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission and then agreement to theChanyuan Treaty,which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditionaltributary system.Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within theLiao Empire,at the expense of its military might which was derived from its nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social-economical consequences occurred in Song's relations with theJin dynasty.
Within the Liao Empire theJurchentribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jincataphractannihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found theQara KhitaiEmpire (Western Liao dynasty).Jin's invasion of the Song dynastyfollowed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as theJingkang Incident,ending theNorthern Song dynasty.Later theentire north of China was conquered.The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city ofHangzhou,and initiated theSouthern Song dynasty,which ruled territories south of theHuai River.In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended with theMongol conquest,as Western Xia fell in 1227, theJin dynasty in 1234,and finally theSouthern Song dynasty in 1279.
Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. TheSong economy,facilitated by technological advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. The population soared to over100 millionand the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both themost populous citiesin the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there was extensivemaritime tradewith neighbouring states, such as inSouth-east Asia,which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange. Giant wooden vessels equipped withcompassestraveled throughout theChina Seasand northern Indian Ocean. The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritimeshipments.With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use ofpaper currencyemerged in the western city ofChengdu,as a cheaper supplement to the existing coppercoins.
The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar-officials such asSu Song(1020–1101) andShen Kuo(1031–1095). Inventions such as the hydro-mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain,woodblock printingandpaper moneywere all invented during the Song dynasty, further cementing its status.
There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellorsWang AnshiandSima Guang,respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma ofNeo-Confucianphilosophy formulated byZhu Xi.Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the innovative historical narrativeZizhi Tongjian( "Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government" ). The invention ofmovable-type printingfurther facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such asAlong the River During the Qingming FestivalandEighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute,along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolificLin Tinggui.
The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in thehistory of warfare.Gunpowder,while invented in theTang dynasty,was first put into practical use on the battlefield by the Song army, inspiring a succession of newfirearmsandsiege enginesdesigns. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding theYangtzeandHuai Riveragainst the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established atDinghai.Paddle-wheelwarships equipped withtrebuchetscould launchincendiary bombsmade of gunpowder and lime to effect, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at theBattle of Tangdaoin theEast China Sea,and theBattle of Caishion the Yangtze River in 1161.
The advances in civilisation during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest of the North and subsequently other areas of the empire, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy. Despite viciouslyhalting Mongol advancesfor more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at theBattle of Yamenin 1279.
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)
TheYuan dynastywas formally proclaimed in 1271, when theGreat Khan of Mongol,Kublai Khan,one of the grandsons ofGenghis Khan,assumed the additional title ofEmperor of China,and consideredhis inherited partof the Mongol Empire as aChinese dynasty.In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war. TheMongolYuan dynasty became the firstconquest dynastyin Chinese history to rule the entirety ofChina properandits populationas anethnic minority.The dynasty also directly controlled theMongol heartlandand other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of theeastern Mongol empire,which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia. Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in theinvasions of JapanandVietnam.Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established atKhanbaliq(also known as Dadu, modern-day Beijing). TheGrand Canalwas reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to lively economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation for Beijing to largely remain as thecapitalof the successive regimes of the unified Chinese mainland.
A series ofMongol civil warsin the late 13th century led to thedivision of the Mongol Empire.In 1304 the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominalKhaganover western khanates (theChagatai Khanate,theGolden Hordeand theIlkhanate), which nonetheless remainedde factoautonomous. The era was known asPax Mongolica,when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols. For the first and only time in history, theSilk Roadwas controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange. A network of roads and apostal systemwere established to connect the vast empire. Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, withQuanzhouandHangzhouemerging as the largest ports in the world. Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably theVenetian,Marco Polo,would settle in China for decades. Upon his return, his detailtravel recordinspired generations ofmedieval Europeanswith the splendors of the far East. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, wherepaper currency,known at the time asJiaochao,was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflictedhyperinflation,which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty.
While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, theirsinicizationwas of lesser extent compared to earlierconquest dynastiesin Chinese history. For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from theMongolian Steppewere held in high regard. On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire. Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance. Large groups offoreign migrantssettled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements. The class ofscholar officialsand intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks. There were prolific works inzajuvariety shows andliterary songs(sanqu), which were written in a distinctivepoetry styleknown asqu.Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity.
Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately120 millioninhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly60 millionpeople.[74]This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such asTimothy Brookargue that the Mongols created a system ofenserfmentamong a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider thatplaguewas the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed around a quarter of the population of China.[75]: 348–351
Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance. Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters and incompetent, corrupt governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s. After themassive naval engagementat Lake Poyang,Zhu Yuanzhangprevailed over other rebel forces in the south. He proclaimed himselfemperorand founded theMing dynastyin 1368. The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq. The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia andsustained the regime,but the period of Yuan dominance was effectively over for good. Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China.
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
TheMing dynastywas founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as theHongwu Emperor.The capital was initially set atNanjing,and was later moved toBeijingfromYongle Emperor's reign onward.
Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.
Despite thexenophobiaand intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school ofneo-Confucianism,China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with thevoyages of Zheng He.
The Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of aChinese dynastywho was also of peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture. Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previousSongandYuandynasties, were less emphasized. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived.
The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the "Grand Secretariat"to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, includingmemorials(petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.
The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops was created. The Chinese armiesconqueredandoccupied Vietnamfor around 20 years, while theChinese fleet sailedthe China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in easternMoghulistan.Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing'sForbidden Cityreached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.
In 1449Esen Tayisiled anOiratMongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of theZhengtong EmperoratTumu.Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to theMing Great Wallbeing built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.
At sea the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed the Indian Ocean were discontinued, and themaritime prohibitionlaws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of theAge of Discoverywere repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese beingrepulsed by the Ming navyatTuen Munin 1521 and againin 1522.Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespreadwokoupiracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of theJiajing Emperor(1507–1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports inGuangdongandFujianandmuch military suppression.[76]In addition to raids from Japan by thewokou,raids from Taiwan and thePhilippines by the Pisheyealso ravaged the southern coasts.[77]The Portuguese were allowed to settle inMacauin 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. After the Spanish invasion of the Philippines, trade with theSpanish at Manilaimported large quantities ofMexican and Peruvian silverfrom theSpanish Americasto China.[78]: 144–145 The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off thePenghu islandsin theSino-Dutch conflictsof 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead.The Dutch in Taiwanfought with the Ming in theBattle of Liaoluo Bayin 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalistKoxingain 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty.
In 1556, during the rule of theJiajing Emperor,theShaanxi earthquakekilled about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time.
The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in theJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598),which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of theJoseon dynasty,its traditional ally andtributary state.Theregional hegemonyof the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources. Coincidentally, with Ming's control inManchuriain decline, theManchu(Jurchen) tribes, under their chieftainNurhaci,broke away from Ming's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which waslater proclaimedas theQing dynasty.It went on to subdue the much weakenedKoreaas itstributary,conqueredMongolia,and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall. The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at theShanhai Passto guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internalpeasants uprisings.
Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by theManchus,it was the secondconquest dynastyto rule the entirety ofChina proper,and roughly doubled the territory controlled by the Ming. The Manchus were formerly known asJurchens,residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty afterNurhaciunited all Jurchen tribes and his son,Hong Taiji,declared the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636. The Qing dynasty set up theEight Bannerssystem that provided the basic framework for the Qing military conquest.Li Zicheng's peasant rebellion captured Beijing in 1644 and theChongzhen Emperor,the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus allied with the Ming generalWu Sanguito seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue theMing remnants in the south.During theMing-Qing transition,when the Ming dynasty and later the Southern Ming, the emerging Qing dynasty, and several other factions like theShun dynastyandXi dynastyfounded by peasant revolt leaders fought against each another, which, along with innumerablenatural disastersat that time such as those caused by theLittle Ice Age[79]andepidemicslike theGreat Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty,[80]caused enormous loss of lives andsignificant harm to the economy.In total, these decades saw the loss of as many as25 millionlives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts.[81]The early Manchu emperors combined traditions ofInner Asianrule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and were considered a Chinese dynasty.
The Manchus enforced a 'queue order', forcing Han Chinese men to adopt the Manchuqueue hairstyle.Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothingChangshan(bannermendress andTangzhuang), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to weartraditional Han clothing.Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered aristocracy and were given annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth. TheKangxi Emperorordered the creation of theKangxi Dictionary,the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled.
Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing.Conquests in Central Asiain the eighteenth century extended territorial control. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed theRevolt of the Three Feudatories,an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by theprevious emperor.In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebelKingdom of Tungning,which was founded by the Ming loyalistKoxinga(Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qingdefeated the Russians at Albazin,resulting in theTreaty of Nerchinsk.
By the end ofQianlong Emperor's long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was atits zenith.The Qing ruled more thanone-third of the world's population,and had the largest economy in the world. By area it wasone of the largest empires ever.
In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by theBritish Empirein theFirst Opium War(1840) led to theTreaty of Nanking(1842), under whichHong Kongwas ceded to Britain and importation ofopium(produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability. Subsequent military defeats andunequal treatieswith other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty.
Internally theTaiping Rebellion(1851–1864), a Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King"Hong Xiuquanswept from the south to establish theTaiping Heavenly Kingdomand controlled roughly a third of China proper for over a decade. The court in desperation empowered Han Chinese officials such asZeng Guofanto raise local armies. After initial defeats, Zeng crushed the rebels in theThird Battle of Nankingin 1864.[82]This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million.[83]A string of civil disturbances followed, including thePunti–Hakka Clan Wars,Nian Rebellion,Dungan Revolt,andPanthay Rebellion.[84]All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials used their military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces.[82]
Yet the dynasty appeared to recover in theTongzhi Restoration(1860–1872), led by Manchu royal family reformers and Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan and his protegesLi HongzhangandZuo Zongtang.TheirSelf-Strengthening Movementmade effective institutional reforms, imported Western factories and communications technology, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by official rivalries, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. The defeat ofYuan Shikai's modernized "Beiyang Fleet"in theFirst Sino-Japanese War(1894–1895) led to the formation of theNew Army.TheGuangxu Emperor,advised byKang Youwei,then launched a comprehensive reform effort, theHundred Days' Reform(1898).Empress Dowager Cixi,however, feared that precipitous change would lead to bureaucratic opposition and foreign intervention and quickly suppressed it.
In the summer of 1900, theBoxer Uprisingopposed foreign influence and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries. When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave, but they and many Chinese Christians werebesieged in the foreign legations quarter.AnEight-Nation Alliancesent theSeymour Expeditionof Japanese, Russian, British, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege, but they were routed and forced to retreat by Boxer and Qing troops at theBattle of Langfang.Afterthe Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts,the court declared war on the Alliance and authorised the Boxers to join with imperial armies. Afterfierce fighting at Tianjin,the Alliance formed the second, much largerGaselee Expeditionandfinally reached Beijing;the Empress Dowager evacuated toXi'an.TheBoxer Protocolended the war, exacting a tremendousindemnity.
The Qing court then instituted administrative and legal reforms known as thelate Qing reforms,including abolition of theexamination system.But young officials, military officers, and students debated reform, perhaps aconstitutional monarchy,or the overthrow of the dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by an emerging public opinion formed by intellectuals such asLiang Qichaoand the revolutionary ideas ofSun Yat-sen.A localised military uprising, theWuchang uprising,began on 10 October 1911, inWuchang(today part ofWuhan), and soon spread. The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, ending 2,000 years of dynastic rule.
Modern China
Republic of China (since 1912)
Theprovisional government of the Republic of Chinawas formed inNanjingon 12 March 1912. Sun Yat-sen becamePresident of the Republic of China,but he turned power over toYuan Shikai,who commanded theNew Army.Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself as the emperor ofEmpire of Chinain late 1915, in the style of anabsolute monarchy.Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the rapidly growing prospect of violent rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916 and died of natural causes in June.
Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum; the republican government (that had been nearly brought to its knees by his policies) was all but shattered. This opened the way for theWarlord Era,during which much of China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders and theBeiyang government,ushering in a short-lived period of uncertainty. Intellectuals, disappointed in the failure of the Republic, launched theNew Culture Movement.
In 1919, theMay Fourth Movementbegan as a response to the pro-Japanese terms imposed on China by theTreaty of Versaillesfollowing World War I. It quickly became a nationwide protest movement. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings ofShandongto Japan. Memory of the mistreatment at Versailles fuels resentment into the 21st century.[85]
Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Patricia Ebrey:
- "Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations."[86]
In the 1920s Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation. He welcomed assistance from theSoviet Union(itself fresh from Lenin's Communist takeover) and he entered into an alliance with the fledglingChinese Communist Party(CCP). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés,Chiang Kai-shek,seized control of theNationalist Party(KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in theNorthern Expedition(1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in the south and central China bymilitary force,Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North and establish theNationalist governmentin Nanjing. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and relentlessly purged the Communists elements in hisNRA.In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as theChinese Soviet Republic,the CCP forces embarked on theLong Marchacross China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, a feat transformed into legend, where they established a guerrilla base atYan'anin Shaanxi. During the Long March, the communists reorganised under a new leader,Mao Zedong(Mao Tse-tung).
The bitterChinese Civil Warbetween the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a United Front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945), which became a part ofWorld War II,although this alliance was tenuous at best and disagreements, sometimes violent, between the forces were still common. Japanese forces committed numerouswar atrocitiesagainst the civilian population, including biological warfare (seeUnit 731) and theThree Alls Policy(Sankō Sakusen), namely being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All".[87]During the war, China was recognized as one of the Allied "Big Four"in theDeclaration by United Nations,as a tribute to its enduring struggle against the invading Japanese.[88]China was one of the four majorAllies of World War II,and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.[89]
Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CCP resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CCP had established control over most of the country.Odd Arne Westadsays the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonised too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism.[90]During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.[91]These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres.[92]
Now, rotten with internal corruption and compounding tactical error after error under crumbling leadership, the Nationalists were slowly routed towards the South. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CCP forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government fled toTaiwanwith its forces, along with Chiang and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China troops there.[93]
Until the early 1970s the ROC was recognised as thesole legitimate government of Chinaby the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations, refusing to recognise the PRC on account of its status as a communist nation during the Cold War. This changed in 1971 when thePRC was seated in the United Nations,replacing the ROC. The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until 1987, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China. Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated during that period, and crackdowns against dissidents were common.
In the 1990s the ROC underwent a major democratic reform, beginning with the 1991 resignation of the members of theLegislative YuanandNational Assemblyelected in 1947. These groups were originally created to represent mainland China constituencies. Also lifted were the restrictions on the use of Taiwanese languages in the broadcast media and in schools. In 1996, the ROC heldits first direct presidential election,and the incumbent president, KMT candidateLee Teng-hui,was elected. In 2000, the KMT status as the ruling party ended when the DPP took power, only to regain its status in the2008 electionbyMa Ying-jeou.
Due to the controversial nature ofTaiwan's political status,the ROC is currently recognised bymerely 12 UN member states and the Holy Seeas of 2024[update]as the legitimate government of "China".
People's Republic of China (since 1949)
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating toTaipeiand maintaining control only over a few islands. The CCP was left in control ofmainland China.On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China.[94]"Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC.[95]
The PRC was shaped by aseries of campaignsandfive-year plans.TheGreat Leap Forward,a radical campaign that encompassed numerous attempted economic and social reforms, resulted in tens of millions of deaths.[96][better source needed]Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, institutedcollectivisationand implemented theLaogaicamp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched theCultural Revolution,which continued until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of theSoviet Union,led to a major upheaval in Chinese society.
Following theSino-Soviet splitand motivated by concerns of invasion by either the Soviet Union or the United States, China initiated theThird Front campaignto develop national defense and industrial infrastructure in its rugged interior.[97]: 44 Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise.[97]: 177
In 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao andZhou Enlaimet U.S. presidentRichard Nixonin Beijing to establish relations with the US. In the same year, thePRC was admitted to the United Nationsin place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council.
A power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976. TheGang of Fourwere arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China.Deng Xiaopingoutmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairmanHua Guofeng,and gradually emerged as thede factoleader over the next few years.
Deng Xiaoping was theParamount Leaderof China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country tosignificant economic reforms.The CCP subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and thecommuneswere disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. In addition, there were many free market areas opened. The most successful free market area was Shenzhen. It is located in Guangdong and the property tax free area still exists today. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some[98]asmarket socialism,and officially by the CCP asSocialism with Chinese characteristics.The PRC adopted its currentconstitutionon 4 December 1982.
In 1989 the death of former general secretaryHu Yaobanghelped to spark theTiananmen Square protestsof that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June whenArmytroops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, resulting inconsiderable numbers of fatalities.This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the communist government.[99][100]
CCP general secretary and PRC presidentJiang Zeminand PRC premierZhu Rongji,both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[101][better source needed]The country formally joined theWorld Trade Organizationin 2001. By1997and1999,former European colonies ofBritish Hong KongandPortuguese Macaubecame the Hong Kong and Macauspecial administrative regions of the People's Republic of China,respectively.
Although the PRC needed economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's natural resources and environment. Another concern was that certain sectors of society were not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this was the wide gap between urban and rural areas in terms of development and prevalence of updated infrastructure. As a result, under former CCP general secretary and PresidentHu Jintaoand PremierWen Jiabao,the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known as of 2014[update].[102]More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land,[103]usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.[104]For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor.[105]
According to theU.S. Department of Defense,as many as 3 millionUyghursand members of otherMuslimminority groups are being held in China'sinternment campswhich are located in theXinjiangregion and which Western news reports often label as "concentration camps".[106]The camps were established in late 2010s underXi Jinping'sadministration.[107][108]Human Rights Watchsays that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of apeople's war on terror,a policy announced in 2014.[109][110][107]The use of these centers appears to have ended in 2019 following international pressure.[111]AcademicKerry Brownattributes their closures beginning in late 2019 to the expense required to operate them.[112]: 138 China has repeatedly denied this, asserting that the West has never been able to produce reliably-sourced satellite footage of any such detainment or resulting detention of minority groups. Although no comprehensive independent surveys of such centres have been performed as of June 2024, spot checks by journalists have found such sites converted or abandoned.[111]In 2022, a Washington Post reporter checked a dozen sites previously identified as reeducation centres and found "[m]ost of them appeared to be empty or converted, with several sites labeled as coronavirus quarantine facilities, teachers' schools and vocational schools."[111]In 2023,Amnesty Internationalsaid that they were "witnessing more and more arbitrary detention", but that detained individuals were being moved from the camps into theformal prison system.[113]
The novel coronavirusSARS-CoV-2,which causes the diseaseCOVID-19,was first detected inWuhan,Hubei in 2019 and led to aglobal pandemic,causing the majority of the world to enter a period of lockdown for at least a year following.
-
ThePeople's Liberation Armyenters Beijing in thePingjin Campaign -
People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing -
The flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949.
See also
- Chinese emperors family tree
- Chinese exploration
- Chinese historiography
- Christianity in China
- Economic history of China
- Ethnic groups in Chinese history
- Foreign relations of imperial China
- Golden ages of China
- History of canals in China
- History of Islam in China
- History of science and technology in China
- History of Taiwan
- History of the Great Wall of China
- List of Chinese monarchs
- List of rebellions in China
- List of recipients of tribute from China
- List of tributary states of China
- Military history of China before 1912
- Naval history of China
- Population history of China
- Timeline of Chinese history
- Women in ancient and imperial China
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- ^TheShiji's description of the Qin including of 36commanderieshas now been disproven by archaeological evidence indicating more. The exact number is unknown;[44]The sinologistDerk Boddenoted that probably "four and possibly as many as half a dozen were added by 210 to the original thirty-six".[45]
- ^Other tribes of the north, collectively called theWu Huby the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty.[55]
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- Xiong, Victor Cunrui;Hammond, Kenneth J.(2019).Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History.London:Routledge.ISBN978-0-367-58051-3.
- Sanft, Charles. "The Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)". InXiong & Hammond (2019),pp. 12–24.
- Zhu, R.X.; Potts, R.; Pan, Y.X.; Yao, H.T; Lü, L.Q.; Zhao, X.; Gao, X.; Chen, L.W.; Gao, F.; Deng, C.L. (December 2008). "Early evidence of the genusHomoin East Asia ".Journal of Human Evolution.55(6): 1075–1085.doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.005.PMID18842287.
- Fairbank, John K.;Twitchett, Denis,eds. (1978–2020).The Cambridge History of China.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
- Bagley, Robert(1999). "Shang Archaeology". InLoewe, Michael;Shaughnessy, Edward L.(eds.).The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-47030-8.
- Keightley, David N. (1999). "The Shang: China's First Historical Dynasty". InLoewe, Michael;Shaughnessy, Edward L.(eds.).The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-47030-8.
- Bodde, Derk (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in". InTwitchett, Dennis;Loewe, Michael(eds.).The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-24327-8.
- Yu, Ying-shih(1986). "Han Foreign Relations". InTwitchett, Dennis;Loewe, Michael(eds.).The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-24327-8.
Further reading
- Dardess, John W. (2010).Governing China, 150–1850.Hackett Publishing.ISBN978-1-60384-311-9.
- Fairbank, John Kingand Goldman, Merle.China: A New History.2nd ed. (Harvard UP, 2006). 640 pp.
- Gernet, Jacques.A History of Chinese Civilization(1996). One-volume survey.
- Li, Xiaobing, ed.China at War: An Encyclopedia.(ABC-CLIO, 2012).
- Mote, Frederick W.Imperial China, 900–1800(Harvard UP, 1999), 1,136 pp. Authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and early Qing dynasties.
- Perkins, Dorothy.Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture(Facts on File, 1999). 662 pp.
- Roberts, J. A. G.A Concise History of China(Harvard U. Press, 1999). 341 pp.
- Stanford, Edward.Atlas of the Chinese Empire, containing separate maps of the eighteen provinces of China(2nd ed., 1917). Legible color maps.
- Wright, David Curtis.History of China(2001) 257 pp.
External links
- China Knowledge,acomprehensive online encyclopediaof China from Ulrich Theobald
- TheBerkshire Encyclopedia of ChinaonOxford Reference(subscription required)
- China Rediscovers its Own History,a lengthy lecture on Chinese history given byYu Ying-shih
