Wikipedia

History of architecture

"Architectural history" redirects here. For the journal, seeArchitectural History (journal).For the book, seeA History of Architecture.
Not to be confused withHistory of construction.

Thehistory of architecturetraces the changes inarchitecturethrough various traditions, regions, overarching stylistic trends, and dates. The beginnings of all these traditions is thought to be humans satisfying the very basic need of shelter and protection.[1]The term "architecture" generally refers to buildings, but in its essence is much broader, including fields we now consider specialized forms of practice, such asurbanism,civil engineering,naval,military,[2]andlandscape architecture.

The Architect's Dream,byThomas Cole,1840, oil on canvas

Trends in architecture were influenced, among other factors, by technological innovations, particularly in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. The improvement and/or use ofsteel,cast iron,tile,reinforced concrete,and glass helped for exampleArt Nouveauappear and madeBeaux Artsmore grandiose.[3]

Paleolithic

edit

Humans and their ancestors have been creating various types of shelters for at least hundreds of thousands of years, and shelter-building may have been present early in hominin evolution. Allgreat apeswillconstruct "nests" for sleeping,albeit at different frequencies and degrees of complexity.Chimpanzeesregularly make nests out of bundles of branches woven together;[4]these vary depending on the weather (nests have thicker bedding when cool and are built with larger, stronger supports in windy or wet weather).[5]Orangutanscurrently make the most complex nests out of all non-human great apes, complete with roofs, blankets, pillows, and "bunks".[6]

It has been argued that nest-building practices were crucial to the evolution of human creativity and construction skill moreso than tool use, as hominins became required to build nests not just in uniquely adapted circumstances but as forms ofsignalling.[7]Retaining arboreal features like highly prehensile hands for the expert construction of nests and shelters would have also benefitted early hominins in unpredictable environments and changing climates.[5]Many hominins, especially the earliest ones such asArdipithecus[8]andAustralopithecus[9]retained such features and may have chosen to build nests in trees where available. The development of a "home base" 2 million years ago may have also fostered the evolution of constructing shelters or protected caches.[10]Regardless of the complexity of nest-building, early hominins may still have still slept in more or less 'open' conditions, unless the opportunity of arock shelterwas afforded.[7]These rock shelters could be used as-is with little more amendments than nests and hearths, or in the case of established bases —especially among later hominins— they could be personalized withrock art(in the case ofLascaux) or other types of aesthetic structures (in the case of theBruniquel Caveamong the Neanderthals)[11]In cases of sleeping in open ground, Dutch ethologistAdriaan Kortlandtonce proposed that hominins could have built temporary enclosures of thorny bushes to deter predators, which he supported using tests that showedlionsbecoming averse to food if near thorny branches.[12]

In 2000, archaeologists at theMeiji Universityin Tokyo claimed to have found 2 pentagonal alignments of post holes on a hillside near the village ofChichibu,interpreting it as two huts dated around 500,000 years old and built byHomo erectus.[13]Currently, the earliest confirmed purpose-built structures are inFranceat the site ofTerra Amata,along with the earliest evidence of artificial fire, c. 400,000 years ago.[14]Due to the perishable nature of shelters of this time, it is difficult to find evidence for dwellings beyond hearths and the stones that may make up a dwelling's foundation. NearWadi Halfa,Sudan,the Arkin 8 site contains 100,000 year old circles of sandstone that were likely the anchor stones for tents.[15]In easternJordan,post hole markings in the soil give evidence to houses made of poles and thatched brush around 20,000 years ago.[16]In areas where bone — especiallymammothbone — is a viable material, evidence of structures preserve much more easily, such as the mammoth-bone dwellings among theMal'ta-Buret'culture 24–15,000 years ago and atMezhirich15,000 years ago. TheUpper Paleolithicin general is characterized by the expansion and cultural growth ofanatomically modern humans(as well as the cultural growth ofNeanderthals,despite their steady extinction at this time), and although we currently lack data for dwellings built before this time, the dwellings of this era begin to more commonly show signs of aesthetic modification, such as at Mezhirich where engraved mammoth tusks may have formed the "facade" of a dwelling.[17]

10,000–2000 BC

edit
Main article:Neolithic architecture
See also:List of oldest known surviving buildings
Reconstruction of aMesolithichouse in Ireland,Irish National Heritage Park

Architectural advances are an important part of theNeolithicperiod (10,000-2000 BC), during which some of the major innovations of human history occurred. The domestication of plants and animals, for example, led to both new economics and a new relationship between people and the world, an increase in community size and permanence, a massive development of material culture and new social and ritual solutions to enable people to live together in these communities. New styles of individual structures and their combination into settlements provided the buildings required for the new lifestyle and economy, and were also an essential element of change.[21]

Although many dwellings belonging to all prehistoric periods and also some clay models of dwellings have been uncovered enabling the creation of faithful reconstructions, they seldom included elements that may relate them to art. Some exceptions are provided by wall decorations and by finds that equally apply to Neolithic andChalcolithicrites and art.

In South and Southwest Asia, Neolithicculturesappear soon after 10,000 BC, initially in theLevant(Pre-Pottery Neolithic AandPre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. There are early Neolithic cultures in Southeast Anatolia, Syria and Iraq by 8000 BC, and food-producing societies first appear in southeast Europe by 7000 BC, and Central Europe by c. 5500 BC (of which the earliest cultural complexes include theStarčevo-Koros (Cris),Linearbandkeramic,andVinča).[22][23][24][25]

Neolithicsettlements and "cities"include:

Antiquity

edit

Mesopotamian

edit
Main article:Architecture of Mesopotamia
See also:Ziggurat

Mesopotamiais most noted for its construction ofmud-brickbuildings and the construction ofziggurats,occupying a prominent place in each city and consisting of an artificial mound, often rising in huge steps, surmounted by a temple. The mound was no doubt to elevate the temple to a commanding position in what was otherwise a flat river valley. The great city ofUrukhad a number of religious precincts, containing many temples larger and more ambitious than any buildings previously known.[32]

The wordzigguratis an anglicized form of theAkkadianwordziqqurratum,the name given to the solid stepped towers of mud brick. It derives from the verbzaqaru,( "to be high" ). The buildings are described as being like mountains linking Earth and heaven. TheZiggurat of Ur,excavated byLeonard Woolley,is 64 by 46 meters at base and originally some 12 meters in height with three stories. It was built underUr-Nammu(circa 2100 B.C.) and rebuilt underNabonidus(555–539 B.C.), when it was increased in height to probably seven stories.[33]

Ancient Egyptian

edit
Main articles:Ancient Egyptian architectureandEgyptian temple

Modern imaginings ofancient Egyptare heavily influenced by the surviving traces of monumental architecture. Many formal styles and motifs were established at the dawn of thepharaonicstate, around 3100 BC. The most iconic Ancient Egyptian buildings are thepyramids,built during theOldandMiddle Kingdoms(c.2600–1800 BC) as tombs for thepharaoh.However, there are also impressive temples, like theKarnak Temple Complex.

The Ancient Egyptians believed in theafterlife.They also believed that in order for their soul (known aska) to live eternally in their afterlife, their bodies would have to remain intact for eternity. So, they had to create a way to protect the deceased from damage and grave robbers. This way, themastabawas born. These wereadobestructures with flat roofs, which had underground rooms for the coffin, about 30mdown.Imhotep,an ancient Egyptian priest and architect, had to design a tomb for the PharaohDjoser.For this, he placed five mastabas, one above the next, this way creating the first Egyptian pyramid, thePyramid of DjoseratSaqqara(c.2667–2648 BC), which is astep pyramid.The first smooth-sided one was built by PharaohSneferu,who ruled betweenc.2613 and 2589 BC. The most imposing one is theGreat Pyramid of Giza,made for Sneferu's son:Khufu(c.2589–2566 BC), being the last survivingwonder of the ancient worldand the largest pyramid in Egypt. The stone blocks used for pyramids were held together bymortar,and the entire structure was covered with highly polished white limestone, with their tops topped in gold. What we see today is actually the core structure of the pyramid. Inside, narrow passages led to the royal burial chambers. Despite being highly associated with the Ancient Egypt, pyramids have been built by other civilisations too, like theMayans.

Due to the lack of resources and a shift in power towards priesthood, ancient Egyptians stepped away from pyramids, andtemplesbecame the focal point of cult construction. Just like the pyramids, Ancient Egyptian temples were also spectacular and monumental. They evolved from small shrines made of perishable materials to large complexes, and by theNew Kingdom(circa 1550–1070 BC) they have become massive stone structures consisting of halls and courtyards. The temple represented a sort of 'cosmos' in stone, a copy of the original mound of creation on which the god could rejuvenate himself and the world. The entrance consisted of a twin gateway (pylon), symbolizing the hills of the horizon. Inside there were columned halls symbolizing a primeval papyrus thicket. It was followed by a series of hallways of decreasing size, until the sanctuary was reached, where a god's cult statue was placed. Back in ancient times, temples were painted in bright colours, mainly red, blue, yellow, green, orange, and white. Because of the desert climate of Egypt, some parts of these painted surfaces were preserved well, especially in interiors.

An architectural element specific to ancient Egyptian architecture is thecavettocornice(a concavemoulding), introduced by the end of the Old Kingdom. It was widely used to accentuate the top of almost every formal pharaonic building. Because of how often it was used, it will later decorate manyEgyptian Revivalbuildings and objects.[41][38]

Harappan

edit
Main article:Harappan architecture
  • The Great Bath, in the raised citadel area of the city,Mohenjo Daro,Sindh Province,Pakistan,unknown architect,c.2600-1900 BC[42]
  • View of Mohenjo Daro, showing the walls and main streets of the city, unknown architect,c.2600-1900 BC[43]

The first Urban Civilization in theIndian subcontinentis traceable originally to theIndus Valley civilisationmainly inMohenjodaroandHarappa,now in modern-day Pakistan as well western states of the Republic of India. The earliest settlements are seen during the Neolithic period inMerhgarh,Balochistan.The civilization's cities were noted for their urban planning with baked brick buildings, elaborate drainage and water systems, and handicraft (carnelianproducts, seal carving). This civilisation transitioned from the Neolithic period into theChalcolithicperiod and beyond with their expertise in metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).[44]Their urban centres possibly grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,[45]and the civilisation itself may have contained between one and five million individuals.[46]

Greek

edit
Main article:Ancient Greek architecture

Since the advent of theClassical AgeinAthens,in the 5th century BC, the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and, indeed, of civilization itself.[53]From circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD,ancient Greek cultureflourished on theGreek mainland,on thePeloponnese,and on theAegeanislands. However, Ancient Greek architecture is best known forits temples,many of which are found throughout the region, and theParthenonis a prime example of this. Later, they will serve as inspiration forNeoclassicalarchitects during the late 18th and the 19th century. The most well-known temples are the Parthenon and theErechtheion,both on theAcropolis of Athens.Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.

Ancient Greek temples usually consist of a base with continuous stairs of a few steps at each edges (known ascrepidoma), acella(ornaos) with a cult statue in it,columns,an entablature, and twopediments,one on the front side and another in the back. By the 4th century BC, Greek architects and stonemasons had developed a system of rules for all buildings known as theorders:theDoric,theIonic,and the Corinthian. They are most easily recognised by their columns (especially by thecapitals). The Doric column is stout and basic, the Ionic one is slimmer and has fourscrolls(calledvolutes) at the corners of the capital, and the Corinthian column is just like the Ionic one, but the capital is completely different, being decorated withacanthusleafs and four scrolls.[47]Besides columns, the frieze was different based on order. While the Doric one hasmetopesandtriglyphswithguttae,Ionic and Corinthian friezes consist of one big continuous band withreliefs.

Besides the columns, the temples were highly decorated with sculptures, in the pediments, on thefriezes,metopesandtriglyphs.Ornamentsused by Ancient Greek architects and artists includepalmettes,vegetal orwave-likescrolls,lionmascarons(mostly on lateralcornices),dentils,acanthusleafs,bucrania,festoons,egg-and-dart,rais-de-cœur,beads,meanders,andacroteriaat the corners of the pediments. Pretty often, ancient Greek ornaments are used continuously, as bands. They will later be used inEtruscan,Romanand in the post-medieval styles that tried to revive Greco-Roman art and architecture, likeRenaissance,Baroque,Neoclassicaletc.

Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient and medieval buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture waspolychromedin much of the Ancient and Medieval world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings, theParthenon(c.447–432 BC) inAthens,had details painted with vibrant reds, blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never completely white. Most had colored highlights oncapitalsandcolumns.[54]This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance. This is becauseLeonardo da Vinciand other Renaissance artists, includingMichelangelo,promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages, became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were during the Renaissance.[55]

Roman

edit
Main article:Ancient Roman architecture

The architecture ofancient Romehas been one of the most influential in the world. Its legacy is evident throughout the medieval and early modern periods, and Roman buildings continue to be reused in the modern era in bothNew ClassicalandPostmodernarchitecture. It was particularly influenced byGreekandEtruscanstyles. A range of temple types was developed during therepublican years(509–27 BC), modified from Greek and Etruscan prototypes.

Wherever the Roman army conquered, they established towns and cities, spreadingtheir empireand advancing their architectural and engineering achievements. While the most important works are to be found in Italy, Roman builders also found creative outlets in the western and eastern provinces, of which the best examples preserved are in modern-dayNorth Africa,Turkey,SyriaandJordan.Extravagant projects appeared, like theArch of Septimius SeverusinLeptis Magna(present-dayLibya,built in 216 AD), with broken pediments on all sides, or theArch of CaracallainThebeste(present-dayAlgeria,built inc.214 AD), with paired columns on all sides, projecting entablatures andmedallionswith divine busts. Due to the fact that the empire was formed from multiple nations and cultures, some buildings were the product of combining the Roman style with the local tradition. An example is thePalmyra Arch(present-daySyria,built inc.212–220),some of its arches being embellished with a repeated band designconsisting of four ovals within a circle around arosette,which are of Eastern origin.

Among the many Roman architectural achievements weredomes(which were created for temples), baths, villas, palaces and tombs. The most well known example is the one of thePantheonin Rome, being the largest surviving Roman dome and having a largeoculusat its centre. Another important innovation is the rounded stone arch, used in arcades, aqueducts and other structures. Besides the Greek orders (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), the Romans invented two more. TheTuscan orderwas influenced by theDoric,but with un-fluted columns and a simplerentablaturewith notriglyphsorguttae,while theCompositewas a mixedorder,combining thevolutesof theIonic ordercapital with theacanthusleaves of the Corinthian order.

Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and engineerMarcus Vitruvius Polliopublished a major treatise,De architectura,which influenced architects around the world for centuries. As the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity, it has been regarded since the Renaissance as the first book on architectural theory, as well as a major source on the canon of classical architecture.[60]

Just like the Greeks, the Romans builtamphiteatrestoo. The largest amphitheatre ever built, theColosseumin Rome, could hold around 50,000 spectators. Another iconic Roman structure that demonstrates their precision and technological advancement is thePont du Gardin southern France, the highest surviving Roman aqueduct.[61][57]

Americas (Pre-Columbian)

edit
Main articles:Mesoamerican architecture,Aztec architecture,Maya architecture,andInca architecture

From over 3,000 years before the Europeans 'discovered' America, complex societies had already been established across North, Central and South America. The most complex ones were inMesoamerica,notably theMayans,theOlmecsand theAztecs,but alsoIncasinSouth America.Structures and buildings were often aligned with astronomical features or with the cardinal directions.

Mesoamerica

edit

Much of the Mesoamerican architecture developed through cultural exchange – for example theAztecslearnt much from earlierMayanarchitecture. Many cultures built entire cities, with monolithic temples and pyramids decoratively carved with animals, gods and kings. Most of these cities had a central plaza with governmental buildings and temples, plus public ball courts, ortlachtli,on raised platforms. Just like in ancient Egypt, here were built pyramids too, being generallystepped.They were probably not used as burial chambers, but had important religious sites at the top.[64]They had few rooms, as interiors mattered less than the ritual presence of these imposing structures and the public ceremonies they hosted; so, platforms, altars, processional stairs, statuary, and carving were all important.[67]

Andes

edit

Incaarchitecture originated from theTiwanakustyles, founded in the 2nd century B.C.E.. The Incas used topography and land materials in their designs, with the capital city ofCuzcostill containing many examples. The famousMachu Picchuroyal estate is a surviving example, along withSacsayhuamánandOllantaytambo.The Incas also developed a road system along the western continent, placing their distinctive architecture along the way, visually asserting their imperial rule along the frontier. Other groups such as theMuiscadid not construct grand architecture of stone based materials, but rather made of materials like wood and clay.

South Asia

edit

After the fall of theIndus Valley,South Asian architecture entered the Dharmic period which saw the development ofAncient Indian architectural styleswhich further developed into various unique forms in the Middle Ages, along with the combination ofIslamic styles,and later, other global traditions.

Ancient Buddhist

edit
Main article:Buddhist architecture

Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent during the 4th and 2nd century BC, and spread first to China and then further across Asia. Three types of structures are associated with thereligious architectureofearly Buddhism:monasteries (viharas), places to venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or prayer halls (chaityas,also calledchaitya grihas), which later came to be called temples in some places. The most iconic Buddhist type of building is the stupa, which consists of adomedstructure containing relics, used as a place of meditation to commemorateBuddha.The dome symbolised the infinite space of the sky.[68]

Buddhismhad a significant influence on Sri Lankan architecture after its introduction,[69]and ancient Sri Lankan architecture was mainly religious, with over 25 styles of Buddhist monasteries.[70]Monasteries were designed using theManjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra,which outlines the layout of the structure.

After the fall of the Gupta empire, Buddhism mainly survived inBengalunder thePalas,[71]and has had a significant impact on pre-IslamicBengali architectureof that period.[72]

Ancient Hindu

edit
Main article:Hindu temple architecture

Across the Indian subcontinent, Hindu architecture evolved from simplerock-cut cave shrinesto monumental temples. From the 4th to 5th centuries AD, Hindu temples were adapted to the worship of different deities and regional beliefs, and by the 6th or 7th centuries larger examples had evolved into towering brick or stone-built structures that symbolise the sacred five-peakedMount Meru.Influenced by earlyBuddhiststupas,the architecture was not designed for collective worship, but had areas for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals.[73]

Many Indian architectural styles for structures such as temples, statues, homes, markets, gardens and planning are as described inHindu texts.[74][75]The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These include theVastu shastras,Shilpa Shastras,theBrihat Samhita,architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as theManasaraamong others.[76][77]

Since this architectural style emerged in the classical period, it has had a considerable influence on various medieval architectural styles like that of theGurjaras,Dravidians,Deccan,Odias,Bengalis,and theAssamese.

Maru Gurjara

edit
Main articles:Māru-Gurjara architecture,Architecture of Gujarat,andArchitecture of Rajasthan

This style of North Indian architecture has been observed inHinduas well asJainplaces of worship and congregation. It emerged in the 11th to 13th centuries under theChaulukya(Solanki) period.[79]It eventually became more popular among the Jain communities who spread it in the greater region and across the world.[80]These structures have the unique features like a large number of projections on external walls with sharply carved statues, and severalurushringaspirelets on the mainshikhara.

Himalayan

edit
Main articles:Architecture of NepalandArchitecture of Tibet

The Himalayas are inhabited by various people groups including thePaharis,Sino-Tibetans,Kashmiris,and many more groups. Being from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, the architecture has also had multiple influences. Considering the logistical difficulties and slower pace of life in the Himalayas, artisans have that the time to make intricate wood carvings and paintings accompanied by ornamental metal work and stone sculptures that are reflected in religious as well as civic and military buildings. These styles exist in different forms fromTibetandKashmirtoAssamandNagaland.[81]A common feature is observed in the slanted layered roofs on temples, mosques, and civic buildings.[82]

Dravidian

edit
Main article:Dravidian architecture
See also:Architecture of Tamil Nadu,Architecture of Kerala,Architecture of Karnataka,Pallava art and architecture,Pandyan art and architecture,Chola art and architecture,Kadamba architecture,Badami Chalukya architecture,Hoysala architecture,Vijayanagara architecture,andWestern Chalukya architecture

This is an architectural style that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent and in Sri Lanka. These includeHindu templeswith a unique style that involves a shorter pyramidal tower over thegarbhagrihaor sanctuary called avimana,where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, calledshikharas.These also include secular buildings that may or may not have slanted roofs based on the geographical region. In the Tamil country, this style is influenced by the Sangam period as well as the styles of the great dynasties that ruled it. This style varies in the region to its west in Kerala that is influenced by geographic factors like western trade and the monsoons which result in sloped roofs.[85]Further north, theKarnata Dravidastyle varies based on the diversity of influences, often relaying much about the artistic trends of the rulers of twelve different dynasties.[86]

Kalinga

edit
Main article:Kalinga architecture

The ancient Kalinga region corresponds to the present-day eastern Indian areas ofOdisha,West Bengaland northernAndhra Pradesh.Its architecture reached a peak between the 9th and 12th centuries under the patronage of theSomavamsi dynastyof Odisha. Lavishly sculpted with hundreds of figures, Kalinga temples usually feature repeating forms such as horseshoes. Within the protective walls of the temple complex are three main buildings with distinctive curved towers calleddeulordeulaand prayer halls calledjagmohan.[88]

East and Southeast Asia

edit

Chinese andConfucianculture has had a significant influence on the art and architecture in theSinosphere(mainlyVietnam,Korea,Japan).[89]

China and Vietnam

edit
Main articles:Chinese architectureandVietnamese architecture

What is recognised today as Chinese culture has its roots in theNeolithicperiod (10,000–2000 BC), covering the cultural sites ofYangshao,Longshan,andLiangzhuin central China. Sections of present-day north-east China also contain sites of the NeolithicHongshanculture that manifested aspects of proto-Chinese culture. Native Chinese belief systems included naturalistic,animisticand hero worship. In general, open-air platforms (tan,or altar) were used for worshipping naturalistic deities, such as the gods of wind and earth, whereas formal buildings (miao,or temple) were for heroes and deceased ancestors.

Most early buildings in China weretimberstructures. Columns with sets ofbracketson the face of the buildings, mostly in even numbers, made the central intercolumnal space the largest interior opening. Heavily tiled roofs sat squarely on the timber building with walls constructed in brick or pounded earth.

The transmission of Buddhism into China around the 1st century AD led to a new era of religious practices, and so to new building types. Places of worship in form of cave temples appeared in China, based onIndian rock-cutones. Another new building type introduced by Buddhism was the Chinese form ofstupa(ta) orpagoda.In India, stupas were erected to commemorate well-known people or teachers: consequently, the Buddhist tradition adapted the structure to remember the great teacher, the Buddha. In The Chinese pagoda shared a similar symbolism with the Indian stupa and was built with sponsorship mainly from imperial patrons who hoped to gain earthly merits for the next life. Buddhism reached its peak from the 6th to the 8th centuries when there was an unprecedented number of monasteries thought China. More than 4,600 official and 40,000 unofficial monasteries were built. They varies in size by the number of cloisters they contained, ranging from 6 to 120. Each cloister consisted of a main stand-alone building – a hall, pagoda of pavilion – and was surrounded by a covered corridor in a rectangular compounded served by a gate building.[90]

Japan and Korea

edit
Main articles:Japanese architectureandKorean architecture

Korean architecture,especially postJoseonperiod showcasesMing-Qinginfluences.[91]

Traditionally, Japanese architecture was made of wood andfusuma(sliding doors) in place of walls, allowing internal space to be altered to suit different purposes. The introduction of Buddhism in the mid 6th century, via the neighbouring Korean kingdom ofPaekche,initiated large-scale wooden temple building with an emphasis on simplicity, and much of the architecture was imported from China and other Asian cultures. By the end of this century, Japan was constructing Continental-style monasteries, notably the temple, known asHoryu-jiinIkaruga.[92]In contrast with Western architecture, Japanese structures rarely use stone, except for specific elements such as foundations. Walls are light, thin, never load-bearing and often movable.[60]

Khmer

edit
Main article:Khmer architecture

From the start of the 9th century to the early 15th century, Khmer kings rules over a vad Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia.Angkor,in present-dayCambodia,was its capital city, and most of its surviving buildings are east-facing stone temples, many of them constructed in pyramidal, tiered form consisting of five square structures with towers, orprasats,that represent the sacred five-peakedMount MeruofHindu,JainandBuddhistdoctrine. As the residences of gods, temples were made of durable materials such assandstone,brick orlaterite,a clay-like substance that dries hard.[94]

Chamarchitecture inVietnamalso follows a similar style.[93]

Sub-Saharan Africa

edit
Main article:Architecture of Africa

TraditionalSub-Saharan Africanarchitecture is diverse, varying significantly across regions. Included among traditional house types, are huts, sometimes consisting of one or two rooms, as well as various larger and more complex structures.

West African and Bantu styles

edit
  • King's palace inNyanza,Rwanda,unknown architect, unknown date
  • Illustration from 1854 of Lunda street and houses
  • Yoruba architecturedepicted in a book byAnna Hindererin the mid 19th century[95]
  • TraditionalBamilekearchitecture, main hall of theBandjounpalace in Cameroon, with decoratively carved wooden columns and doorway, unknown architect, unknown date

In much of West Africa, rectangular houses with peaked roofs and courtyards, sometimes consisting of several rooms and courtyards, are also traditionally found (sometimes decorated, with adobe reliefs as among theAshantiof Ghana,[96][97]or carved pillars as among theYoruba peopleof Nigeria, especially in palaces and the dwellings of the wealthy)[98]Besides the regular rectangular type of dwelling with a sharp roof, widespread inWest AfricaandMadagascar,there also other types of houses:beehive housesmade from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof, and the round one, with acone-shaped roof. The first type, which also existed in America, is characteristic especially for Southern Africa. These were used byBantu-speaking groups in southern and parts of east Africa, which was made with mud, poles, thatch, andcow dung(rectangular houses were more common among the Bantu-speaking peoples of the greater Congo region and central Africa). The round hut with acone-shaped roof is widespread especially inSudanandEastern Africa,but is also present inColombiaandNew Caledonia,as well as in theWestern SudanandSahelregions of west Africa, where they are sometimes arranged into compounds.[99]A distinct style of traditional wooden architecture exists among the Grassland peoples of Cameroon, such as theBamileke.

In several West African societies, including the kingdom of Benin (and of otherEdo peoples), and the kingdoms of the Yoruba, Hausa, at sites likeJenne-Jeno(a pre-Islamic city in Mali),[100][101]and elsewhere, towns and cities were surrounded by large walls of mud brick or adobe,[102]and sometimes by monumental moats and earthworks, such asSungbo's Eredo(in the Nigerian Yoruba kingdom of Ijebu) and theWalls of Benin(of the NigerianKingdom of Benin).[103][104]In medieval southern Africa, a tradition existed of fortified stone settlements such asGreat ZimbabweandKhami.

The famedBenin Cityof southwest Nigeria (capital of the Kingdom of Benin) destroyed by thePunitive Expedition,was a large complex of homes in coursed clay, withhipped roofsofshinglesor palm leaves. The Palace had a sequence of ceremonial rooms, and was decorated withbrass plaques.It was surrounded by a monumental complex ofearthworks and wallswhose construction is thought to have begun by the early Middle Ages.[103][104][105][106]

  • Beehive-shaped houses of theMusgum ethnic groupinPouss[fr],Cameroon,unknown architect, unknown date
  • A traditional house of theTammari peoplein theAtakora Departmentof the northern Republic ofBenin(not to be confused with the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin), unknown architect, unknown date
  • Palace ofAshantiKwaku Dua of Kumasi, Ghana, unknown architect, 1896
  • ADogonvillage inMali,with walls made in thewattle and daubmethod, unknown architect, unknown date
  • The conical tower inside the Great Enclosure inGreat Zimbabwe,a medieval city built by a prosperous culture, unknown architect,c.11th–14th century

Sahelian

edit
Main article:Sudano-Sahelian architecture

In the WesternSahelregion, Islamic influence was a major contributing factor to architectural development from the later ages of theKingdom of Ghana.AtKumbi Saleh,locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques, as described byal-bakri,with one centered onFriday prayer.[107]The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.[108]

Sahelian architectureinitially grew from the two cities ofDjennéandTimbuktu.TheSankore MosqueinTimbuktu,constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to theGreat Mosque of Djenné.The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood, mud-brick and adobe. Though later acquiring Islamic influences, the style also had roots in local pre-Islamic building styles, such as those found in ancient settlements likeJenne-Jeno,Dia, Mali,andDhar Tichitt,[109]some of which employed a traditional sahelian style of cylindrical mud brick.[100]

Ethiopian

edit
Main article:Ethiopian architecture

Ethiopian architecture(including modern-dayEritrea) expanded from the Aksumite style and incorporated new traditions with the expansion of the Ethiopian state. Styles incorporated more wood and rounder structures in domestic architecture in the center of the country and the south, and these stylistic influences were manifested in the construction of churches and monasteries. Throughout the medieval period, Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted, with its influence strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when therock-cutmonolithic churchesofLalibelawere carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially from the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia, especially during the northernmost region ofTigray,which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire. The most famous example of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the eleven monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town.[110]During the early modern period in Ethiopia, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish andGujaratistyle began with the arrival ofPortugueseJesuitmissionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Oceania

edit
Main article:Oceanic art and architecture

Most Oceanic buildings consist ofhuts,made of wood and other vegetal materials.Artand architecture have often been closely connected—for example, storehouses and meetinghouses are often decorated with elaborate carvings—and so they are presented together in this discussion. The architecture of thePacificIslands was varied and sometimes large in scale. Buildings reflected the structure and preoccupations of the societies that constructed them, with considerable symbolic detail. Technically, most buildings inOceaniawere no more than simple assemblages of poles held together with cane lashings; only in the Caroline Islands were complex methods of joining and pegging known. Fakhua shen, Taboa shen and Kuhua shen (the shen triplets) designed the first oceanian architecture.

An important Oceanic archaeological site isNan Madolfrom theFederated States of Micronesia.Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of theSaudeleur Dynasty,which united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until about 1628.[111]Set apart between the main island ofPohnpeiandTemwen Island,it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century AD. By the 8th or 9th century, islet construction had started, with construction of the distinctivemegalithic architecturebeginning 1180–1200 AD.[112]

Islamic

edit
Main article:Islamic architecture

Due to the extent of theIslamic conquests,Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range ofarchitectural stylesfrom the foundation of Islam (7th century) to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced byRoman,Byzantine,Persian,Mesopotamianarchitecture and all other lands which theEarly Muslim conquestsconquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.[118][119]Further east, it was also influenced byChineseandIndian architectureas Islam spread to Southeast Asia. This wide and long history has given rise to many local architectural styles, including but not limited to:Umayyad,Abbasid,Persian,Moorish,Fatimid,Mamluk,Ottoman,Indo-Islamic(particularlyMughal),Sino-IslamicandSahelianarchitecture.

Some distinctive structures in Islamic architecture aremosques,madrasas,tombs, palaces,baths,and forts. Notable types of Islamic religious architecture includehypostylemosques, domed mosques and mausoleums, structures with vaultediwans,and madrasas built around central courtyards. In secular architecture, major examples of preserved historic palaces include theAlhambraand theTopkapi Palace.Islam does not encourage the worship of idols; therefore the architecture tends to be decorated withArabic calligraphy(includingQur'anicverses or other poetry) and with more abstract motifs such asgeometric patterns,muqarnas,andarabesques,as opposed to illustrations of scenes and stories.[120][121][122][123]

European

edit

Medieval

edit
Main article:Medieval architecture
See also:Norse architectureandArchitecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School

Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense across various parts of Europe.Castlesandfortified wallsprovide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. New types of civic, military, as well as religious buildings of new styles begin to pop up in this region during this period.

Byzantine

edit

Byzantine architects built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges,aqueducts,and churches. They built many types of churches, including thebasilica(the most widespread type, and the one that reached the greatest development). After the early period, the most common layout was thecross-in-squarewith five domes, also found inMoscow,NovgorodorKiev,as well as inRomania,Bulgaria,Serbia,North MacedoniaandAlbania.Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style will be used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in allEastern Orthodoxcountries.[129]For example, in Romania, theBrâncovenesc styleis highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics.

Just as theParthenonis the most famous building ofAncient Greek architecture,Hagia Sophiaremains the iconic church ofOrthodox Christianity.InGreekandRoman temples,the exterior was the most important part of the temple, where sacrifices were made; the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept, often had limited access by the general public. But Christian liturgies are held in the interior of the churches, Byzantine exteriors usually have little if any ornamentation.[130]

Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns,cofferedceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use ofmosaicswithgolden backgrounds.[131]The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was very appreciated by the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thinalabastersheets for windows.[132]Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface wherefrescowould not resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are inHagios DemetriosinThessaloniki(Greece), theBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovoand theBasilica of San Vitale,both inRavenna(Italy), andHagia SophiainIstanbul.

Armenia

edit
Main article:Armenian architecture

From the very beginning of the formation of feudal relations, the architecture and urban planning of Armenia entered a new stage. The ancient Armenian cities experienced economic decline; only Artashat and Tigranakert retained their importance. The importance of the cities ofDvinand Karin (Erzurum) increased. The construction of the city of Arshakavan by the king of Great Armenia Arshak II was not completely completed. Christianity brought to life a new architecture of religious buildings, which was initially nourished by the traditions of the old, ancient architecture.

Churches of the 4th-5th centuries are mainly basilicas (Kasakh,4th-5th centuries, Ashtarak, 5th century, Akhts, 4th century, Yeghvard, 5th century). Some basilicas of Armenian architecture belong to the so-called “Western type” of basilica churches. Of these, the most famous are the churches ofTekor(5th century),Yererouk(IV-V centuries),Dvin(470),Tsitsernavank(IV-5 centuries). The three-nave Yereruyk basilica stands on a 6-step stylobate, presumably built on the site of an earlier pre-Christian temple. The basilicas of Karnut (5th century), Yeghvard (5th century), Garni (IV century), Zovuni (5th century), Tsaghkavank (VI century), Dvina (553–557), Tallinn (5th century) have also been preserved c.), Tanaat (491), Jarjaris (IV-V centuries), Lernakert (IV-V centuries), etc.[136]

Romanesque

edit
Main article:Romanesque architecture

The term 'Romanesque' is rooted in the 19th century, when it was coined to describe medieval churches built from the 10th to 12th century, before the rise of steeply pointed arches,flying buttressesand other Gothic elements. This style of architecture emerged nearly simultaneously in multiple countries (France,Germany,Italy, Spain).[142]For 19th-century critics, the Romanesque reflected the architecture of stonemasons who evidently admired the heavy barrel vaults and intricate carvedcapitalsof the ancient Romans, but whose own architecture was considered derivative and degenerate, lacking the sophistication of their classical models.

Scholars in the 21st century are less inclined to understand the architecture of this period as a 'failure' to reproduce the achievements of the past, and are far more likely to recognise its profusion of experimental forms, as a series of creative new inventions. At the time, however, research has questioned the value of Romanesque as a stylistic term. On the surface, it provides a convenient designation for buildings that share a common vocabulary of roundedarchesand thick stonemasonry,and appear in between theCarolingian revival of classical antiquityin the 9th century and the swift evolution of Gothic architecture after the second half of the 12th century. One problem, however, is that the term encompasses a broad array of regional variations, some with closer links to Rome than others. It should also be noted that the distinction between Romanesque architecture and its immediate predecessors and followers is not at all clear. There is little evidence that medieval viewers were concerned with the stylistic distinctions that we observe today, making the slow evolution of medieval architecture difficult to separate into neat chronological categories. Nevertheless, Romanesque remains a useful word despite its limitations, because it reflects a period of intensive building activity that maintained some continuity with the classical past, but freely reinterpreted ancient forms in a new distinctive manner.[21]

Romanesque cathedrals can be easily differentiated from Gothic and Byzantine ones, since they are characterized by the wide use of thick piers and columns, round arches and severity. Here, the possibilities of the round-arch arcade in both a structural and a spatial sense were once again exploited to the full. Unlike the sharp pointed arch of the later Gothic, the Romanesque round arch required the support of massive piers and columns. In comparison to Byzantine churches, Romanesque ones tend to lack complex ornamentation both on the exterior and interior. An example of this is thePérigueux Cathedral(Périgueux,France), built in the early 12th century and designed on the model ofSt. Mark's BasilicainVenice,but lacking mosaics, leaving its interior very austere and minimalistic.[143]

Gothic

edit
Main article:Gothic architecture

Gothic architecture began with a series of experiments, which were conducted to fulfil specific requests by patrons and to accommodate the ever-growing number ofpilgrimsvisiting sites that housed precious relics. Pilgrims in thehigh Middle Ages(circa 1000 to 1250 AD) increasingly travelled to well-known pilgrimage sites, but also to local sites where local and national saints were reputed to have performed miracles. The churches and monasteries housing importantrelicstherefore wanted to heighten the popularity of their respective saints and build appropriate shrines for them. These shrines were not merely gem-encrusted reliquaries, but more importantly took the form of powerful architectural settings characterised by coloured light emitting from the large areas ofstained glass.The use of stained glass, however, is not the only defining element of Gothic architecture and neither are thepointed arch,the ribbedvault,therose windowor theflying buttress,as many of these elements were used in one way or another in preceding architectural traditions. It was rather the combination and constant refinement of these elements, along with the quick response to the rapidly changing building techniques of the time, that fuelled the Gothic movement in architecture.

Consequently, it is difficult to point to one element or the exact place where Gothic first emerged; however, it is traditional to initiate a discussion of Gothic architecture with theBasilica of St Denis(circa 1135–1344) and its patrons,Abbot Suger,who began to rebuild the west front and the choir of the church. As he wrote in hisDe Administratione,the old building could no longer accommodate the large volumes of pilgrims who were coming to venerate the relics of St Denis, and the solution for this twofold: a westfaçadewith three largeportalsand the innovative newchoir,which combined anambulatorywith radiatingchapelsthat were unique as they were not separated by walls. Instead a row of slim columns was inserted between the chapels and the choir arcade to support the rib vaults. The result enabled visitors to circulate around the altar and come within reach of the relics without actually disrupting the altar space, while also experiencing the large stained-glass windows within the chapels. As confirmed bySuger,the desire for more stained-glass was not necessarily to bring more daylight into the building but rather to fill the space with a continuous ray of colorful light, rather like mosaics or precious stones, which would make the wall vanish. The demand for ever more stained-glass windows and the search for techniques that would support them are constant throughout the development of Gothic architecture, as is evident in the writings of Suger, who was fascinated by the mystical quality of such lighting.[21]

Brick Gothicwas a specific style of Gothic architecture common inNortheastandCentral Europeespecially in the regions in and around theBaltic Sea,which do not have resources of standing rock. The buildings are essentially built usingbricks.

Renaissance

edit
Main article:Renaissance architecture
See also:Henry II styleandHenry IV style

During theRenaissance,Italy consisted of many states, and intense rivalry between them generated an increase in technical and artistic developments. TheMedici Family,an Italianbanking familyandpolitical dynasty,is famous for its financial support of Renaissance art and architecture.

The period began in around 1452, when the architect and humanistLeon Battista Alberti(1404–1472) completed his treatiseDe Re Aedificatoria(On the Art of Building) after studying the ancient ruins of Rome andVitruvius'sDe Architectura.His writings covered numerous subjects, including history, town planning, engineering, sacred geometry,humanismand philosophies of beauty, and set out the key elements of architecture and its ideal proportions. In the last decades of the 15th century, artists and architects began to visit Rome to study the ruins, especially theColosseumand thePantheon.They left behind precious records of their studies in the form of drawings. While humanist interest in Rome had been building up over more than a century (dating back at least toPetrarchin the 14th century), antiquarian considerations of monuments had focused on literary, epigraphic and historical information rather than on the physical remains. Although some artists and architects, such asFilippo Brunelleschi(1377–1446),Donatello(circa 1386–1466) and Leon Battista Alberti, are reported to have made studies of Roman sculpture and ruins, almost no direct evidence of this work survives. By the 1480s, prominent architects, such asFrancesco di Giorgio(1439–1502) andGiuliano da Sangallo(circa 1445–1516), were making numerous studies of ancient monuments, undertaken in ways that demonstrated that the process of transforming the model into a new design had already begun. In many cases, drawing ruins in their fragmentary state necessitated a leap of imagination, as Francesco himself readily admitted in his annotation to his reconstruction of theCampidoglio,noting 'largely imagined by me, since very little can be understood from the ruins.[156]

Soon, grand buildings were constructed in Florence using the new style, like thePazzi Chapel(1441–1478) or thePalazzo Pitti(1458–1464). The Renaissance begun in Italy, but slowly spread to other parts of Europe, with varying interpretations.[149]

Since Renaissance art is an attempt of reviving Ancient Rome's culture, it uses pretty much the same ornaments as the Ancient Greek and Roman. However, because most if not all resources that Renaissance artists had wereRoman,Renaissance architecture and applied arts widely use certain motifs and ornaments that are specific to Ancient Rome. The most iconic one is themargent,a vertical arrangement of flowers, leaves or hanging vines, used atpilasters.Another ornament associated with the Renaissance is the roundmedallion,containing a profile of a person, similar with Ancientcameos.Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, and other post-medieval styles useputti(chubby baby angels) much more often compared to Greco-Roman art and architecture. An ornament reintroduced during the Renaissance, that was of Ancient Roman descent, that will also be used in later styles, is thecartouche,anovalor oblong design with a slightlyconvexsurface, typically edged with ornamentalscrollwork.

Worldwide

edit

Baroque

edit
Main article:Baroque architecture
See also:Louis XIV styleandBaroque garden

The Baroque emerged from theCounter Reformationas an attempt by theCatholic Churchin Rome to convey its power and to emphasize the magnificence of God. The Baroque and its late variant theRococowere the first truly global styles in the arts. Dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1800. Born in the painting studios ofBolognaandRomein the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughoutItaly,SpainandPortugal,Flanders,France,the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres fromMunich(Germany) toVilnius(Lithuania). ThePortuguese,SpanishandFrenchempires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such asLima,Mozambique,Goaand thePhilippines.[166]Due to its spread in regions with different architectural traditions, multiple kinds of Baroque appeared based on location, different in some aspects, but similar overall. For example, French Baroque appeared severe and detached by comparison, preemptingNeoclassicismand the architecture of theAge of Enlightenment.[157]Hybrid Native American/European Baroque architecture first appeared in South America (as opposed to Mexico) in the late 17th century, after the indigenous symbols and styles that characterize this unusual variant of Baroque had been kept alive over the preceding century in other media, a very good example of this being theJesuit ChurchinArequipa(Peru).[167]

The first Baroque buildings were cathedrals, churches and monasteries, soon joined by civic buildings, mansions, and palaces. Being characterized by dynamism, for the first time walls, façades and interiors curved,[168]a good example beingSan Carlo alle Quattro Fontanein Rome. Baroque architects took the basic elements ofRenaissance architecture,including domes and colonnades, and made them higher, grander, more decorated, and more dramatic. The interior effects were often achieved with the use ofquadratura,ortrompe-l'œilpainting combined with sculpture: the eye is drawn upward, giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens. Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling. Light was also used for dramatic effect; it streamed down from cupolas and was reflected from an abundance of gilding.Solomonic columnswere often used, to give an illusion of upwards motion and other decorative elements occupied every available space. In Baroque palaces, grand stairways became a central element.[169]Besides architecture, Baroque painting and sculpture are characterized by dynamism too. This is in contrast with how static and peacefulRenaissance artis.

Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed had a role too. Both Baroque and Rococo buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as theSan Carlo alle Quattro Fontanein Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of theSantiago de Compostela Cathedral,designed to tower over the city. A manifestation of power and authority on the grandest scale, Baroque urban planning and renewal was promoted by the church and the state alike. It was the first era since antiquity to experience mass migration into cities, and urban planners took idealistic measures to regulate them. The most notable early example wasDomenico Fontana's restructuring of Rome's street plan ofPope Sixtus V.Architects had experimented with idealized city schemes since the early Renaissance, examples beingLeon Battista Alberti(1404–1472) planning a centralized model city, with streets leading to a central piazza, orFilarete(Antonio di Pietro Aver(u)lino,c. 1400-c. 1469) designing a round city namedSforzinda(1451–1456) that he based on parts of the human body in the idea that a healthy city should reflect the physiognomy of its inhabitants. However, none of these idealistic cities has ever been built. In fact, few such projects were put into practice in Europe as new cities were prohibitively costly and existing urban areas, with existing churches and palaces, could not be demolished. Only in the Americas, where architects often had a clean space to work with, were such cities possible, as inLima(Peru) orBuenos Aires(Argentina). The earliest Baroque ideal city isZamość,built north-east ofKraków(Poland) by the Italian architectBernardo Morando(c. 1540-1600), being a centralized town focusing on a square with radiating streets. Where entire cities could not be rebuilt, patrons and architects compensated by creating spacious and symmetrical squares, often with avenues and radiating out at perpendicular angles and focusing on a fountain, statue orobelisk.A good example of this is thePlace des Vosges(formerly Place Royale), commissioned byHenry IVprobably after plans byBaptiste du Cerceau(1545–1590). The most famous Baroque space in the world isGianlorenzo Bernini'sSt. Peter's Squarein Rome.[170]Similar with ideal urban planning,Baroque gardensare characterized by straight and readapting avenues, with geometric spaces.

Rococo

edit
Main articles:RococoandRocaille
See also:Style Louis XV

The nameRococoderives from the French wordrocaille,which describes shell-covered rock-work, andcoquille,meaning seashell. Rococo architecture is fancy and fluid, accentuating asymmetry, with an abundant use of curves, scrolls, gilding and ornaments. The style enjoyed great popularity with the ruling elite of Europe during the first half of the 18th century. It developed in France out of a new fashion in interior decoration, and spread across Europe.[175]Domestic Rococo abandoned Baroque's high moral tone, its weighty allegories and its obsession with legitimacy: in fact, its abstract forms and carefree, pastoral subjects related more to notions of refuge and joy that created a more forgiving atmosphere for polite conversations. Rococo rooms are typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy. Even the grander salons used for entertaining were more modest in scale, as social events involved smaller numbers of guests.

Characteristic of the style were Rocaille motifs derived from the shells, icicles and rock-work or grotto decoration. Rocaille arabesques were mostly abstract forms, laid out symmetrically over and around architectural frames. A favourite motif was the scallop shell, whose top scrolls echoed the basic S and C framework scrolls of thearabesquesand whose sinuous ridges echoed the general curvilinearity of the room decoration. While few Rococo exteriors were built in France, a number of Rococo churches are found in southern Germany.[176]Other widely-user motifs in decorative arts and interior architecture include:acanthusand other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruits, elements associated with love (putti,quivers with arrows ans arrowed hearts)trophies of arms,putti,medallions with faces, many many flowers, andFar Eastern elements(pagodes,dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers, bamboo, and Chinese people).[177]Pastel colours were widely used, like light blue, mint green or pink. Rococo designers also loved mirrors (the more the better), an example being the Hall of Mirrors of theAmalienburg(Munich,Germany), byJohann Baptist Zimmermann.Generally, mirrors are also featured above fireplaces.

Exoticism

edit
Main article:Exoticism

The interactions between East and West brought on by colonialist exploration have had an impact on aesthetics. Because of being something rare and new to Westerners, some non-European styles were really appreciated during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Some nobles and kings built little structures inspired by these styles in the gardens of their palaces, or fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces like this. Because of not fully understanding the origins and principles that govern these exotic aesthetics, Europeans sometimes created hybrids of the style which they tried to replicate and which were the trends at that time. A good example of this ischinoiserie,a Western decorative style, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese arts, but also by Rococo at the same time. Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was something hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles. Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques.

Chinese art was not the only foreign style with which Europeans experimented. Another was theIslamicone. Examples of this include the Garden Mosque of theSchwetzingen Palacein Germany (the only surviving example of an 18th-century European garden mosque), theRoyal PavilioninBrighton,or theMoorish Revivalbuildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries, with horseshoe arches and brick patterns. When it come to the Orient, Europeans also had an interest for the culture of Ancient Egypt. Compared to other cases of exoticism, the one with the land ofpharaohsis the oldest one, sinceAncient GreeksandRomanshad this interest during Antiquity. The main periods whenEgyptian Revivalmonuments were erected were the early 19th century, with Napoleon's military campaigns in Egypt, and the 1920s, when theTomb of Tutankhamunwas discovered in 1922, which caused anEgyptomaniathat lead toArt Decosometimes using motifs inspired by Ancient Egypt. During the late 18th and early 19th century,Neoclassicismsometimes mixed Greco-Roman elements with Egyptian ones. Because of its association withpharaohs,deathandeternity,multiple Egyptian Revival tombs or cemetery entry gates were built in this style. Besides mortuary structures, other buildings in this style include certainsynagogues,like theKarlsruhe Synagogueor someEmpiremonuments built during the reign ofNepoleon,such as the Egyptianporticoof theHôtel Beauharnaisor theFontaine du Fellah.During the 1920s and 1930s,Pre-ColumbianMesoamerican architecturewas of great interest for some American architects, particularly what theMayansbuilt. Several ofFrank Lloyd Wright's California houses were erected in a Mayan Revival style, while other architects combined Mayan motifs with Art Deco ones.[186]

Neoclassicism

edit
Main article:Neoclassical architecture
See also:Palladian architecture,Louis XVI style,Adam style,andEmpire style

Neoclassical architecture focused onAncient GreekandRomandetails, plain, white walls and grandeur of scale. Compared to the previous styles, Baroque and Rococo, Neoclassical exteriors tended to be more minimalist, featuring straight and angular lines, but being still ornamented. The style's clean lines and sense of balance and proportion worked well for grand buildings (such as thePanthéonin Paris) and for smaller structures alike (such as thePetit Trianon).

Excavations during the 18th century atPompeiiandHerculaneum,which had both been buried under volcanic ash during the 79 AD eruption ofMount Vesuvius,inspired a return to order and rationality, largely thanks to the writings ofJohann Joachim Winckelmann.[197][198]In the mid-18th century,antiquitywas upheld as a standard for architecture as never before. Neoclassicism was a fundamental investigation of the very bases of architectural form and meaning. In the 1750s, an alliance between archaeological exploration and architectural theory started, which will continue in the 19th century.Marc-Antoine Laugierwrote in 1753 that 'Architecture owes all that is perfect to theGreeks'.[199]

The Cenotaph of Newton,c.1784 (never built), byÉtienne-Louis Boullée[193]

The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia.Federal-style architectureis the name for the classicizing architecture built inNorth Americabetween c. 1780 and 1830, and particularly from 1785 to 1815. This style shares its name with its era, theFederal Period.The term is also used in association with furniture design in the United States of the same time period. The style broadly corresponds to the middle-class classicism ofBiedermeierstyle in the German-speaking lands,Regency stylein Britain and to the FrenchEmpire style.In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is usually referred to asClassicism(German:Klassizismus,Russian:Классицизм), while the newerRevival stylesof the 19th century until today are called neoclassical.

Étienne-Louis Boullée(1728–1799) was a visionary architect of the period. Hisutopianprojects, never built, included a monument toIsaac Newton(1784) in the form of an immense dome, with anoculusallowing the light to enter, giving the impression of a sky full of stars. Hisproject for an enlargement of the Royal Library(1785) was even more dramatic, with a gigantic arch sheltering the collection of books. While none of his projects were ever built, the images were widely published and inspired architects of the period to look outside the traditional forms.[200]

Similarly with the Renaissance and Baroque periods, during the Neoclassical one urban theories of how a good city should be appeared too.Enlightenmentwriters of the 18th century decried the problems of Paris at that time, the biggest one being the big number of narrow medieval streets crowded with modest houses.Voltaireopenly criticized the failure of the French Royal administration to initiate public works, improve the quality of life in towns, and stimulate the economy. 'It is time for those who rule the most opulent capital in Europe to make it the most comfortable and the most magnificent of cities. There must be public markets, fountains which actually provide water and regular pavements. The narrow and infected streets must be widened, monuments that cannot be seen must be revealed and new ones built for all to see', Voltaire insisted in a polemical essay on 'The Embellishments of Paris' in 1749. In the same year,Étienne La Font de Saint-Yenne,criticized howLouis XIV's greateast façade of the Louvre,was all but hidden from views by a dense quarter of modest houses. Voltaire also said that in order to transform Paris into a city that could rival ancient Rome, it was necessary to demolish more than it was to built. 'Our towns are still what they were, a mass of houses crowded together haphazardly without system, planning or design',Marc-Antoine Laugiercomplained in 1753. Writing a decade later,Pierre Pattepromoted an urban reform in quest of health, social order, and security, launching at the same time a medical and organic metaphor which compared the operations of urban design to those of the surgeons. With bad air and lack of fresh water its current state was pathological, Patte asserted, calling for fountains to be placed at principal intersections and markets. Squares are recommended promote the circulation of air, and for the same reason houses on the city's bridges should be demolished. He also criticized the location of hospitals next to markets and protested continued burials in overcrowded city churchyards.[201]Besides cities, new ideas of how a garden should be appeared in 18th century England, making place for theEnglish landscape garden(akajardin à l'anglaise), characterized by an idealized view of nature, and the use of Greco-Roman or Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. It was the opposite of the symmetrical and geometrically plannedBaroque garden(akajardin à la française).

Revivalism and Eclecticism

edit
Main article:Revivalism (architecture)
See also:Eclecticism in architecture,Victorian architecture,andNapoleon III style § Architecture

The 19th century was dominated by a wide variety of stylistic revivals, variations, and interpretations.Revivalisminarchitectureis the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of aprevious architectural era.Modern-day Revival styles can be summarized withinNew Classical architecture,and sometimes under the umbrella term traditional architecture.

The idea that architecture might represent the glory of kingdoms can be traced to the dawn of civilisation, but the notion that architecture can bear the stamp of national character is a modern idea, that appeared in the 18th century historical thinking and given political currency in the wake of theFrench Revolution.As the map of Europe was repeatedly changing, architecture was used to grant the aura of a glorious past to even the most recent nations. In addition to the credo of universal Classicism, two new, and often contradictory, attitudes on historical styles existed in the early 19th century. Pluralism promoted the simultaneous use of the expanded range of style, while Revivalism held that a single historical model was appropriate for modern architecture. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example:Egyptianfor prisons,Gothicfor churches, orRenaissance Revivalfor banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: thepharaohswithdeathandeternity,theMiddle AgeswithChristianity,or theMedici familywith the rise of banking and modern commerce.

View ofDevonpart,nearPlymouth(UK), byJohn Foulston,1820s, including an 'Egyptian' library, a 'Hindoo' nonconformist chapel, a 'primitiveDoric' town hall, and a street of houses with aRomanCorinthian order

Whether their choice wasClassical,medieval, orRenaissance,all revivalists shared the strategy of advocating a particular style based on national history, one of the great enterprises of historians in the early 19th century. Only one historic period was claimed to be the only one capable of providing models grounded in national traditions, institutions, or values. Issues of style became matters of state.[204]

The most well-known Revivalist style is theGothic Revivalone, that appeared in the mid-18th century in the houses of a number of wealthy antiquarians in England, a notable example being theStrawberry Hill House.GermanRomanticwriters and architects were the first to promote Gothic as a powerful expression of national character, and in turn use it as a symbol of national identity in territories still divided.Johann Gottfried Herderposed the question 'Why should we always imitate foreigners, as if we were Greeks or Romans?'.[205]

In art and architecture history, the termOrientalismrefers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels inWestern Asia,during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France.

In India, during theBritish Raj,a new style,Indo-Saracenic,(also known asIndo-Gothic,Mughal-Gothic,Neo-Mughal,orHindoo style) was getting developed, which incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the Western European style. TheChurches and convents of Goaare another example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles. Most Indo-Saracenic public buildings were constructed between 1858 and 1947, with the peaking at 1880.[206]The style has been described as "part of a 19th-century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals".[207]They were often built for modern functions such as transport stations, government offices, and law courts. It is much more evident in British power centres in the subcontinent likeMumbai,Chennai,andKolkata.[208]

Beaux-Arts

edit
Main article:Beaux-Arts architecture

The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from theÉcole des Beaux-Artsin Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Due to the fact that international students studied here, there are buildings from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century of this type all over the world, designed by architects likeCharles Girault,Thomas Hastings,Ion D. BerindeyorPetre Antonescu.Today, fromBucharesttoBuenos Airesand fromSan FranciscotoBrussels,the Beaux-Arts style survives in opera houses, civic structures, university campuses commemorative monuments, luxury hotels and townhouses. The style was heavily influenced by theParis Opéra House(1860–1875), designed byCharles Garnier,the masterpiece of the 19th centuryrenovation of Paris,dominating its entire neighbourhood and continuing to astonish visitors with its majestic staircase and reception halls. The Opéra was an aesthetic and societal turning point in French architecture. Here, Garnier showed what he called astyle actuel,which was influenced by the spirit of the time, akaZeitgeist,and reflected the designer's personal taste.

Beaux-Arts façades were usually imbricated, or layered with overlapping classical elements or sculpture. Often façades consisted of a high rusticated basement level, after it a few floors high level, usually decorated with pilasters or columns, and at the top an attic level and/or the roof. Beaux-Arts architects were often commissioned to design monumental civic buildings symbolic of the self-confidence of the town or city. The style aimed for aBaroqueopulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evokedLouis XIV'sVersailles.However, it was not just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, likeRenaissance,Baroque,Rococo,Neoclassicismetc.[216][217][218]

Industry and new technologies

edit

Because of theIndustrial Revolutionand the new technologies it brought, new types of buildings have appeared. By 1850 iron was quite present in dailylife at every scale, from mass-produced decorative architectural details and objects of apartment buildings and commercial buildings to train sheds. A well-known 19th century glass and iron building isthe Crystal PalacefromHyde Park(London), built in 1851 to house theGreat Exhibition,having an appearance similar with a greenhouse. Its scale was daunting.

The marketplace pioneered novel uses of iron and glass to create an architecture of display and consumption that made the temporary display of the world fairs a permanent feature of modern urban life. Just after a year after the Crystal Palace was dismantaled,Aristide Boucicautopened what historians of mass consumption have labelled the firstdepartment store,Le Bon Marchéin Paris. As the store expanded, its exterior took on the form of a public monument, being highly decorated with FrenchRenaissance Revivalmotifs. The entrances advanced subtly onto the pavemenet, hoping to captivate the attention of potential customers. Between 1872 and 1874, the interior was remodelled byLouis-Charles Boileau,in collaboration with the young engineering firm ofGustave Eiffel.In place of the open courtyard required to permit more daylight into the interior, the new building focused around three skylight atria.[224]

Art Nouveau

edit
Main article:Art Nouveau § Architecture and ornamentation
See also:Art Nouveau religious buildings

Popular in many countries from the early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Art Nouveau was an influential although relatively brief art and design movement and philosophy. Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for themodern architectureof the 20th century. Betweenc.1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices beingFriedrich Nietzschein 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression.

Focusing on natural forms, asymmetry, sinuous lines and whiplash curves, architects and designers aimed to escape the excessively ornamental styles and historical replications, popular during the 19th century. However, the style was not completely new, since Art Nouveau artists drew on a huge range of influences, particularlyBeaux-Arts architecture,theArts and Crafts movement,aestheticismandJapaneseart. Buildings used materials associated in the 19th century with modernity, such as cast-iron and glass. A good example of this is the Paris Metro entrance atPorte DauphinebyHector Guimard(1900). Its cast-iron and glass canopy is as much sculpture as it is architecture. In Paris, Art Nouveau was even called Le Style Métro by some. The interest for stylized organic forms of ornamentation originated in the mid 19th century, when it was promoted inThe Grammar of Ornament(1854), a pattern book by British architectOwen Jones (architect)(1809–1874).

Whiplashcurves and sinuous organic lines are its most familiar hallmarks, however the style can not be summarized only to them, since its forms are much more varied and complex. The movement displayed many national interpretations. Depending on where it manifested, it was inspired byCeltic art,Gothic Revival,Rococo Revival,andBaroque Revival.In Hungary, Romania and Poland, for example, Art Nouveau incorporated folkloric elements. This is true especially in Romania, because it facilitated the appearance of theRomanian Revivalstyle, which draws inspiration fromBrâncovenesc architectureand traditional peasant houses and objects. The style also had different names, depending on countries. In Britain it was known asModern Style,in the Netherlands asNieuwe Kunst,in Germany and Austria asJugendstil,in Italy asLiberty style,in Romania asArta 1900,and in Japan asShiro-Uma.It would be wrong to credit any particular place as the only one where the movement appeared, since it seems to have arisen in multiple locations.[233][234][235][236]

Modern

edit
Main article:Modern architecture

Rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism and modern materials, Modernist architecture appeared across the world in the early 20th century.Art Nouveaupaved the way for it, promoting the idea of non-historicist styles. It developed initially in Europe, focusing on functionalism and the avoidance of decoration. Modernism reached its peak during the 1930s and 1940s with theBauhausand theInternational Style,both characterised by asymmetry, flat roofs, large ribbon windows, metal, glass, white rendering and open-plan interiors.[240]

Art Deco

edit
Main articles:Art DecoandStreamline Moderne

Art Deco, named retrospectively after an exhibition held in Paris in 1925, originated in France as a luxurious, highly decorated style. It then spread quickly throughout the world - most dramatically in the United States - becoming morestreamlinedand modernistic through the 1930s. The style was pervasive and popular, finding its way into the design of everything from jewellery to film sets, from the interiors of ordinary homes to cinemas, luxury streamliners and hotels. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of theGreat Depressionduring the 1930s.[245]

Although it ended with the start of World War II, its appeal has endured. Despite that it is an example of modern architecture, elements of the style drew onancient Egyptian,Greek,Roman,African,AztecandJapaneseinfluences, but also onFuturism,Cubismand theBauhaus.Bold colours were often applied on low-reliefs. Predominant materials includechrome plating,brass,polishedsteelandaluminium,inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.

International Style

edit
Main article:International Style (architecture)

The International Style emerged in Europe after World War I, influenced by recent movements, includingDe StijlandStreamline Moderne,and had a close relationship to theBauhaus.The antithesis of nearly every other architectural movement that preceded it, the International Style eliminated extraneous ornament and used modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete andchrome plating.Rectilinear, flat-roofed, asymmetrical and white, it became a symbol of modernity across the world. It seemed to offer a crisp, clean, rational future after the horrors of war. Named by the architectPhilip Johnsonand historianHenry-Russell Hitchcock(1903–1987) in 1932, the movement was epitomized byCharles-Edouard Jeanneret,orLe Corbusierand was clearly expressed in his statement that 'a house is a machine for living in'.[250]

Brutalist

edit
Main article:Brutalist architecture

Based on social equality, Brutalism was inspired byLe Corbusier's 1947-1952Unité d'habitationinMarseilles.It seems the term was originally coined by Swedish architectHans Asplund(1921–1994), but Le Corbusier's use of the descriptionbéton brut,meaning raw concrete, for his choice of material for the Unité d'habitation was particularly influential. The style flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, mainly using concrete, which although new in itself, was unconventional when exposed on facades. Before Brutalism, concrete was usually hidden beneath other materials.[256]

Postmodern

edit
Main article:Postmodern architecture

Not one definable style, Postmodernism is an eclectic mix of approaches that appeared in the late 20th century in reaction against Modernism, which was increasingly perceived as monotonous and conservative. As with many movements, a complete antithesis to Modernism developed. In 1966, the architectRobert Venturi(1925–2018) had published his book,Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture,which praised the originality and creativity ofManneristandBaroque architectureof Rome, and encouraged more ambiguity and complexity in contemporary design. Complaining about the austerity and tedium of so many smooth steel and glass Modernist buildings, and in deliberate denunciation of the famous Modernist 'Less is more', Venturi stated 'Less is a bore'. His theories became a majore influence on the development of Postmodernism.[257]

Deconstructivist

edit
Main article:Deconstructivism

Deconstructivism in architecture is a development ofpostmodern architecturethat began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation,non-linearprocesses of design, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, and apparentnon-Euclidean geometry,[269](i.e., non-rectilinearshapes) which serve to distort and dislocate some of theelements of architecture,such as structure andenvelope.The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterised by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist movement include the 1982Parc de la Villettearchitectural design competition(especially the entry from the French philosopherJacques Derridaand the American architectPeter Eisenman[270]andBernard Tschumi's winning entry), theMuseum of Modern Art's 1988Deconstructivist Architectureexhibition in New York, organized byPhilip JohnsonandMark Wigley,and the 1989 opening of theWexner Center for the ArtsinColumbus,designed by Peter Eisenman. The New York exhibition featured works byFrank Gehry,Daniel Libeskind,Rem Koolhaas,Peter Eisenman,Zaha Hadid,Coop Himmelblau,andBernard Tschumi.Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture.

Contemporary architecture

edit
This section is an excerpt fromContemporary architecture.[edit]
Contemporary architectureis thearchitectureof the 21st century. No single style is dominant.[271]Contemporary architects work in several different styles, frompostmodernism,high-tech architectureand new references and interpretations oftraditional architecture[272][273]to highly conceptual forms and designs, resemblingsculptureon an enormous scale. Some of these styles and approaches make use of very advanced technology and modern building materials, such astube structureswhich allow construction of buildings that are taller, lighter and stronger than those in the 20th century, while others prioritize the use ofnatural and ecologicalmaterials like stone, wood andlime.[274]One technology that is common to all forms of contemporary architecture is the use of new techniques ofcomputer-aided design,which allow buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in three dimensions, and constructed with more precision and speed.

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^Ching, Francis, D.K. and Eckler, James F. Introduction to Architecture. 2013. John Wiley & Sons. p13
  2. ^Architecture. Def. 1.Oxford English DictionarySecond Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009
  3. ^Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy (2019).HOUSES - Extraordinary Living.Phaidon. p. 9.ISBN978-0-7148-7809-6.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^Wrangham, Richard W. (1996).Chimpanzee cultures.Chicago Academy of Sciences, Harvard University Press. pp. 115–125.ISBN978-0-674-11663-4.Retrieved2 July2011.
  5. ^abMcLester, E. (2018, July 26). Chimpanzee ‘nests’ shed light on the origins of humanity.The Conversation.
  6. ^Didik, Prasetyo; Ancrenaz, Marc; Morrogh-Bernard, Helen C.; Atmoko, S. Suci Utami; Wich, Serge A.; van Schaik, Carel P. (2009)."Nest building in orangutans".In Wich, Serge A.; Atmoko, S. Suci Utami; Setia, Tatang Mitra (eds.).Orangutans: geographic variation in behavioral ecology and conservation.Oxford University Press. pp. 270–275.ISBN978-0-19-921327-6.Retrieved5 July2011.
  7. ^abVerpooten, Jan, and Yannick Joye. "Evolutionary interactions between human biology and architecture: insights from signaling theory and a cross-species comparative approach."Naturalistic approaches to culture(2014): 101-121.
  8. ^White, Tim D., Berhane Asfaw, Yonas Beyene, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, C. Owen Lovejoy, Gen Suwa, and Giday WoldeGabriel. "Ardipithecus ramidus and the paleobiology of early hominids."Science326, no. 5949 (2009): 64-86.
  9. ^Alemseged, Zeresenay, Fred Spoor, William H. Kimbel, René Bobe, Denis Geraads, Denné Reed, and Jonathan G. Wynn. "A juvenile early hominin skeleton from Dikika, Ethiopia."Nature443, no. 7109 (2006): 296-301.
  10. ^Isaac, Glynn. "The food-sharing behavior of protohuman hominids."Scientific American238, no. 4 (1978): 90-109.
  11. ^Jaubert, Jacques, Sophie Verheyden, Dominique Genty, Michel Soulier, Hai Cheng, Dominique Blamart, Christian Burlet et al. "Early Neanderthal constructions deep in Bruniquel Cave in southwestern France."Nature534, no. 7605 (2016): 111-114.
  12. ^Kortlandt, Adriaan. "How might early hominids have defended themselves against large predators and food competitors?."Journal of Human Evolution9, no. 2 (1980): 79-112.
  13. ^“World’s Oldest Building Discovered.”BBC News,March 1, 2000.
  14. ^de Lumley 2007,p. 211.
  15. ^Chmielewski, Waldemar. "Early and Middle Paleolithic sites near Arkin, Sudan."The prehistory of Nubia;[final report] papers assembled and(1968): 110-147.
  16. ^Maher, Lisa A., Tobias Richter, Danielle Macdonald, Matthew D. Jones, Louise Martin, and Jay T. Stock. "Twenty thousand-year-old huts at a hunter-gatherer settlement in eastern Jordan."PloS one7, no. 2 (2012): e31447.
  17. ^Baitenov, Eskander. "New Interpretation of the Engraving Discovered at Mezhirich Upper Paleolithic Site." In 3rd International Conference on Architecture: Heritage, Traditions and Innovations (AHTI 2021), pp. 85-93. Atlantis Press, 2021.
  18. ^Monumente,Jg. 28 (2018), Nr. 4, S. 18–23, hier S. 21.
  19. ^http://stanzon.husemann.net/download.php?id=201533&type=T[bare URL]
  20. ^Musée de Préhistoire Terra Amata."Le site acheuléen de Terra Amata"[The Acheulean site of Terra Amata].Musée de Préhistoire Terra Amata(in French).Retrieved10 June2022.
  21. ^abcJones 2014,pp. 148, 149.
  22. ^"The Old Copper Complex: North America's First Miners & Metal Artisans".Retrieved10 August2015.
  23. ^Song, Jeeun."The History of Metallurgy and Mining in the Andean Region".World History at Korean Minjok Leadership Academy.Korean Minjok Leadership Academy.Retrieved10 August2015.
  24. ^Choi, Charles Q. (18 April 2007)."Pre-Incan Metallurgy Discovered".Live Science.Retrieved10 August2015.
  25. ^Maldonado, Blanco D. (2003)."Tarascan Copper Metallurgy at the Site of Itziparátzico, Michoacán, México"(PDF).Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies.Retrieved22 January2016.
  26. ^Jones 2014,p. 18.
  27. ^Jones 2014,p. 22.
  28. ^van Lemmen, Hans (2013).5000 Years of Tiles.The British Museum Press. p. 16.ISBN978-0-7141-5099-4.
  29. ^Weston, Richard (2011).100 Ideas That Changed Architecture.Laurence King. p. 21.ISBN978-1-78627-567-7.
  30. ^van Lemmen, Hans (2013).5000 Years of Tiles.The British Museum Press. p. 17.ISBN978-0-7141-5099-4.
  31. ^Fortenberry 2017,p. 6.
  32. ^Risebero, Bill (2018).The Story of Western Architecture.Bloomsbury. p. 13.ISBN978-1-3500-9212-9.
  33. ^"Gods and Goddesses".Mesopotamia.co.uk.Retrieved9 November2015.
  34. ^Jones 2014,p. 28.
  35. ^Jones 2014,p. 25.
  36. ^Robertson, Hutton (2022).The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View.Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-02236-8.
  37. ^Jones 2014,p. 27.
  38. ^abHodge 2019,p. 12.
  39. ^Robertson, Hutton (2022).The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View.Thames & Hudson. p. 126.ISBN978-0-500-02236-8.
  40. ^Jones 2014,p. 30.
  41. ^Jones 2014,p. 24, 25, 26.
  42. ^Robertson, Hutton (2022).The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View.Thames & Hudson. p. 137.ISBN978-0-500-02236-8.
  43. ^Robertson, Hutton (2022).The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View.Thames & Hudson. p. 136.ISBN978-0-500-02236-8.
  44. ^Wright 2009,pp. 115–125.
  45. ^Dyson 2018,p. 29.
  46. ^McIntosh 2008,p. 187.
  47. ^abHodge 2019,p. 14.
  48. ^Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014,p. 32.
  49. ^Hodge 2019,p. 57.
  50. ^Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014,p. 35.
  51. ^Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014,p. 40.
  52. ^1000 de Minuni Arhitecturale(in Romanian). Editura Aquila. 2009. p. 226.ISBN978-973-714-450-8.
  53. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 6.
  54. ^Zukowsky, John (2019).A Chronology of Architecture.Thames & Hudson. p. 23.ISBN978-0-500-34356-2.
  55. ^Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmanny (2017).Gods in Color - polychromy in the ancient world.Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Legion of Honor. p. 13.ISBN978-3-7913-5707-2.
  56. ^abJones 2014,p. 48.
  57. ^abHodge 2019,p. 16.
  58. ^Jones 2014,p. 52.
  59. ^Irving 2019,p. 36.
  60. ^abKruft, Hanno-Walter.A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to the Present(New York, Princeton Architectural Press: 1994).
  61. ^Jones 2014,p. 46, 73, 76, 77.
  62. ^Jones 2014,p. 67.
  63. ^Robertson, Hutton (2022).The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View.Thames & Hudson. p. 217.ISBN978-0-500-02236-8.
  64. ^abHodge 2019,p. 13.
  65. ^abJones 2014,p. 69.
  66. ^abRobertson, Hutton (2022).The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View.Thames & Hudson. p. 505.ISBN978-0-500-02236-8.
  67. ^Jonathan, Glancey (2006).Architecture A Visual History.DK,Penguin Random House.p. 35.ISBN978-0-2412-8843-6.
  68. ^Hodge 2019,p. 15.
  69. ^"Home and family in ancient and medieval Sri Lanka".Lankalibrary.com. 2008-12-21. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-02-21.Retrieved2010-09-20.
  70. ^Pieris K (2006), Architecture and landscape in ancient and medieval Lanka
  71. ^Reza, Mohammad Habib (2012).Early Buddhist Architecture of Bengal: Morphological study on the vihāras of c. 3rd to 8th centuries(PhD). Nottingham Trent University.
  72. ^Reza, Mohammad Habib (2020)."Cultural continuity in the Sultanate Bengal: Adjacent ponds of the mosque as a traditional phenomenon".Esempi di Architettura.8(10): 225–235.doi:10.4399/978882553987510(inactive 2024-09-02).RetrievedSeptember 19,2022.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (link)
  73. ^Hodge 2019,p. 19.
  74. ^Acharya 1927,p. xviii-xx.
  75. ^Sinha 1998,pp. 27–41
  76. ^Acharya 1927,p. xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts.
  77. ^Shukla 1993.
  78. ^Hall, William (2019).Stone.Phaidon. p. 46.ISBN978-0-7148-7925-3.
  79. ^Mitchell (1977), 123; Hegewald
  80. ^Harle, 239–240; Hegewald
  81. ^Bernier, Ronald M. (1997).Himalayan Architecture.Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 8.ISBN978-1-61147-121-2.
  82. ^Bernier, Ronald M. (1997).Himalayan Architecture.Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 161, 162, & 163.ISBN978-1-61147-121-2.
  83. ^N. Subramanian (21 September 2005)."Remains of ancient temple found".The Hindu.Archived fromthe originalon 10 November 2012.
  84. ^N. Ramya (1 August 2010)."New finds of old temples enthuse archaeologists".The Times of India.Archived fromthe originalon 15 September 2012.
  85. ^Philip, Boney."Traditional Kerala Architecture".
  86. ^"Architectural Wonders of Karnataka".Retrieved2009-09-26.[permanent dead link]
  87. ^"Welcome to Odissi.com ¦ Orissa ¦ Sri Jagannath".Archived fromthe originalon 1 August 2020.
  88. ^Hodge 2019,p. 21.
  89. ^Hung, Dinh M. (1966)."VIETNAM AND SOUTHEAST ASIA: An address delivered at the Rotary Club of Bristol, Rhode Island on 6 April 1966"(PDF).Naval War College Review.18(9): 28–33.JSTOR44635438.Retrieved3 September2021.
  90. ^Jones 2014,pp. 54, 55, 56 & 57.
  91. ^Guo, Qinghua (2005)."TIMBER BUILDING STRUCTURES IN CHOSEN KOREA — A CASE STUDY ON GEUNJEONGJEON AND INJEONGJEON"(PDF).Journal of Architectural and Planning Research.22(1): 51–68.JSTOR43030720.Retrieved29 July2021.
  92. ^Jones 2014,p. 63.
  93. ^ab"THE DESIGNS OF RELIGIOUS MONUMENTS OF THE DVARAVATI, KHMER, AND PENINSULAR REGION /CHAIYA SCHOOLS IN THAILAND".Retrieved3 September2021.
  94. ^Hodge 2019,p. 23.
  95. ^Hinderer, Anna; Hone, D; Hone, C A (27 August 2016).Seventeen Years in the Yoruba Country. Memorials of Anna Hinderer.Wentworth Press.ISBN978-1371184360.
  96. ^The Monthly Review, Or, Literary Journal.1819. p. 291.
  97. ^"Ghana Museums & Monuments Board".www.ghanamuseums.org.Retrieved2020-02-24.
  98. ^Osasona, Cordelia O.,From traditional residential architecture to the vernacular: the Nigerian experience(PDF),Ile-Ife, Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo University,retrieved3 December2019
  99. ^Sobeski, Michal (1975).Arta Exotică(in Romanian). Editura Meridiane. p. 42 & 43.
  100. ^abMcintosh, Susan Keech; Mcintosh, Roderick J. (February 1980). "Jenne-Jeno: An Ancient African City".Archaeology.33(1): 8–14.
  101. ^Shaw, Thurstan.The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns.Routledge, 1993, pp. 632.
  102. ^Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine (2005).The History of African Cities South of the Sahara From the Origins to Colonization.Markus Wiener Pub. pp. 123–126.ISBN978-1-55876-303-6.
  103. ^abPatrick Darling (2015)."Conservation Management of the Benin Earthworks of Southern Nigeria: A critical review of past and present action plans".In Korka, Elena (ed.).The Protection of Archaeological Heritage in Times of Economic Crisis.Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 341–352.ISBN9781443874113.Retrieved9 March2019.
  104. ^abKoutonin, Mawuna (March 18, 2016)."Story of cities #5: Benin City, the mighty medieval capital now lost without trace".The Guardian.Retrieved15 August2020.
  105. ^Ogundiran, Akinwumi (June 2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives".Journal of World Prehistory.19(2): 133–168.doi:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y.S2CID144422848.
  106. ^MacEachern, Scott (January 2005)."Two thousand years of West African history".African Archaeology: A Critical Introduction.Academia.
  107. ^Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions3 of the Historical Society of Ghana, The Society, 1957, pp81
  108. ^Davidson, Basil. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little Brown, 1959, pp86
  109. ^Brass, Mike (1998),The Antiquity of Man: East & West African complex societies,archived fromthe originalon 2012-04-04,retrieved2021-07-11
  110. ^David Keys:Medieval Houses of God, or Ancient Fortresses?
  111. ^Nan Madol, Madolenihmw, PohnpeiArchived2010-06-13 at theWayback MachineWilliam Ayres, Department of Anthropology University Of Oregon, Accessed 26 September 2007
  112. ^McCoy, Mark D.; Alderson, Helen A.; Hemi, Richard; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence (November 2016)."Earliest direct evidence of monument building at the archaeological site of Nan Madol (Pohnpei, Micronesia) identified using 230Th/U coral dating and geochemical sourcing of megalithic architectural stone"(PDF).Quaternary Research.86(3): 295–303.Bibcode:2016QuRes..86..295M.doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2016.08.002.Retrieved30 October2017.
  113. ^abJones 2014,p. 95.
  114. ^Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007).Cairo of the Mamluks: a history of the architecture and its culture.London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 201–213.ISBN978-1-84511-549-4.
  115. ^Jones 2014,p. 120.
  116. ^Necipoğlu, Gülru (2011) [2005].The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire.Reaktion Books. p. 208.ISBN978-1-86189-253-9.
  117. ^Jones 2014,p. 212.
  118. ^Krautheimer, Richard; Ćurčić, Slobodan (1992).Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture.Yale University Press. p. 285.ISBN978-0-300-05294-7.
  119. ^Fletcher, Banister (1901).A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method for Students, Craftsmen & Amateur.B.T. Batsford, Limited. p. 476.ISBN978-1-343-92962-3.
  120. ^Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins, Marilyn (2001).Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250.Yale University Press.ISBN9780300088670.
  121. ^Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995).The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800.Yale University Press.ISBN9780300064650.
  122. ^Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter, eds. (2011).Islam: Art and Architecture.h.f.ullmann.ISBN9783848003808.
  123. ^M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009).The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195309911.
  124. ^Jones 2014,p. 83.
  125. ^Hodge 2019,p. 62.
  126. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 19.
  127. ^Jones 2014,p. 88.
  128. ^Jones 2014,p. 90.
  129. ^George D. Hurmuziadis (1979).Cultura Greciei(in Romanian). Editura științifică și enciclopedică. p. 89 & 90.
  130. ^George D. Hurmuziadis (1979).Cultura Greciei(in Romanian). Editura științifică și enciclopedică. p. 92.
  131. ^Hodge 2019,p. 17.
  132. ^George D. Hurmuziadis (1979).Cultura Greciei(in Romanian). Editura științifică și enciclopedică. p. 93.
  133. ^Arakelian et al. 1984,p. 571.
  134. ^Սուրբ Հռիփսիմե վանք[Saint Hripsime Monastery].ejmiatsin.a m(in Armenian). Municipality of Ejmiatsin. 2 March 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 29 November 2018.Retrieved15 January2024.
  135. ^(in Armenian)Stepanian, A. and H. Sargsian. s.v. "Zvart'nots',"Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia,vol. 3, pp. 707-710.
  136. ^"Искусство Армении. Месроп Маштоц".
  137. ^Jones 2014,p. 136.
  138. ^Hooklingsworth, Mary (2002).ARTA în Istoria Umanității(in Romanian). rao. p. 148.
  139. ^Jones 2014,p. 138.
  140. ^Jones 2014,p. 133.
  141. ^Hodge 2019,p. 24.
  142. ^"Romanesque".The Oxford Dictionary of Art.Oxford University Press. 2004.doi:10.1093/acref/9780198604761.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-860476-1.
  143. ^Hopkins 2014,pp. 23, 25.
  144. ^abJones 2014,p. 149.
  145. ^Hodge 2019,p. 25.
  146. ^Melvin, Jeremy (2006).…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale(in Romanian). Enciclopedia RAO. p. 39.ISBN973-717-075-X.
  147. ^Hodge 2019,p. 82.
  148. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 55.
  149. ^abHodge 2019,p. 26.
  150. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 60.
  151. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 47.
  152. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 64.
  153. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 61.
  154. ^Jones 2014,p. 205.
  155. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 67.
  156. ^Jones 2014,p. 196.
  157. ^abJones 2014,p. 223.
  158. ^Jones 2014,p. 226.
  159. ^Bailey 2012,pp. 211.
  160. ^Bailey 2012,pp. 328.
  161. ^Hodge 2019,p. 102.
  162. ^Bailey 2012,pp. 238.
  163. ^Bailey 2012,p. 216.
  164. ^Martin, Henry (1927).Le Style Louis XIV(in French). Flammarion. p. 39.
  165. ^Jones 2014,p. 230.
  166. ^Bailey 2012,p. 4.
  167. ^Bailey 2012,p. 364.
  168. ^Hodge 2019,p. 29.
  169. ^Ducher (1988), Flammarion, pg. 102
  170. ^Bailey 2012,pp. 205, 206, 207 & 208.
  171. ^Hall, William (2019).Stone.Phaidon. p. 185.ISBN978-0-7148-7925-3.
  172. ^Jones 2014,p. 241.
  173. ^Watkin, David (2022).A History of Western Architecture.Laurence King. p. 419.ISBN978-1-52942-030-2.
  174. ^abJones 2014,p. 238.
  175. ^Hodge 2019,p. 30.
  176. ^Cole 2002,p. 270.
  177. ^Graur, Neaga (1970).Stiluri în arta decorativă(in Romanian). Cerces. p. 193 & 194.
  178. ^Sund 2019,p. 104.
  179. ^"Kina slott, Drottningholm".www.sfv.se.National Property Board of Sweden. Archived fromthe originalon 6 August 2014.Retrieved2 August2014.
  180. ^Jones 2014,p. 264.
  181. ^Sund 2019,p. 151.
  182. ^Jones 2014,p. 262.
  183. ^Sund 2019,p. 216.
  184. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 130.
  185. ^Texier, Simon (2022).Architectures Art Déco - Paris et Environs - 100 Bâtiments Remarquable.Parigramme. p. 37.ISBN978-2-37395-136-3.
  186. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 117, 130, 225;Bailey 2012,pp. 279, 281;Jones 2014,p. 265;Sund 2019,pp. 208, 216, 217, 224, 225.
  187. ^Weston, Richard (2011).100 Ideas That Changed Architecture.Laurence King. p. 84.ISBN978-1-78627-567-7.
  188. ^Jones 2014,p. 276.
  189. ^abJones 2014,p. 273.
  190. ^de Martin 1925,p. 17.
  191. ^Fortenberry 2017,p. 274.
  192. ^de Martin 1925,p. 61.
  193. ^abJones 2014,p. 275.
  194. ^Hall, William (2019).Stone.Phaidon. p. 159.ISBN978-0-7148-7925-3.
  195. ^Steffens, Martin (2004).Schinkel(in Romanian). Taschen. p. 37.ISBN973-7959-11-6.
  196. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 109.
  197. ^Hodge 2019,p. 31.
  198. ^"Winckelmann, Johann Joachim: Neoclassical Art Historian".
  199. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 9, 14.
  200. ^Prina and Demartini (2006), pg. 250-51
  201. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 48, 49, 50.
  202. ^Woinaroski, Cristina (2013).Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context european(in Romanian). SIMETRIA.ISBN978-973-1872-30-8.
  203. ^Ghigeanu, Mădălin (2022).Curentul Mediteraneean în arhitectura interbelică.Vremea. p. 521.ISBN978-606-081-135-0.
  204. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 139, 140, 141.
  205. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 139–142, 145.
  206. ^Jayewardene-Pillai, 6, 14
  207. ^Das, xi
  208. ^Das, xi, xiv, 98, 101
  209. ^abJones 2014,p. 296.
  210. ^Marinache, Oana (2017).Paul Gottereau - Un Regal în Arhitectură(in Romanian). Editura Istoria Artei. p. 184.ISBN978-606-8839-09-7.
  211. ^Mariana Celac, Octavian Carabela and Marius Marcu-Lapadat (2017).Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide.Ordinul Arhitecților din România. p. 90.ISBN978-973-0-23884-6.
  212. ^Jones 2014,p. 294.
  213. ^Oltean, Radu (2016).Bucureștii Belle Époque(in Romanian). Art Historia. p. 47.ISBN978-973-0-22923-3.
  214. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 135.
  215. ^"Villa in neorégencestijl".inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be.29 March 2019.Retrieved8 April2022.
  216. ^Jones 2014,p. 292, 295, 296.
  217. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 132, 133, 134, 135.
  218. ^Bailey 2012,pp. 413.
  219. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 248.
  220. ^Jones 2014,p. 267.
  221. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 236.
  222. ^Gössel, Peter; Leuthäuser, Gabriele (2022).Architecture in the 20th Century.TASCHEN. p. 54.ISBN978-3-8365-7090-9.
  223. ^Gössel, Peter; Leuthäuser, Gabriele (2022).Architecture in the 20th Century.TASCHEN. p. 78.ISBN978-3-8365-7090-9.
  224. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 207, 237, 238.
  225. ^Jones 2014,p. 321.
  226. ^Madsen, S. Tschudi (1977).Art Nouveau(in Romanian). Editura Meridiane.
  227. ^Jones 2014,p. 323.
  228. ^"Paris et l'Art Nouveau".Nº281 Dossier de l'Art(in French). Éditions Faton. 2020.
  229. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 141.
  230. ^Duncan 1994,p. 44.
  231. ^Duncan 1994,p. 52.
  232. ^Mariana Celac, Octavian Carabela and Marius Marcu-Lapadat (2017).Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide.Ordinul Arhitecților din România. p. 85.ISBN978-973-0-23884-6.
  233. ^Bergdoll 2000,pp. 269, 279.
  234. ^Jones 2014,p. 320, 321, 322.
  235. ^Hodge 2019,p. 36.
  236. ^Madsen, S. Tschudi (1977).Art Nouveau(in Romanian). Editura Meridiane. p. 7.
  237. ^Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy (2019).HOUSES - Extraordinary Living.Phaidon. p. 56.ISBN978-0-7148-7809-6.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  238. ^Jones 2014,p. 347.
  239. ^Jones 2014,p. 348.
  240. ^Hodge 2019,p. 37.
  241. ^Criticos, Mihaela (2009).Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism(in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 43.ISBN978-973-1872-03-2.
  242. ^L., Clausen, Meredith (1987).Frantz Jourdain and the Samaritaine: art nouveau theory and criticism.Leiden: E.J Brill.ISBN9789004078796.OCLC27266259.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  243. ^Jones 2014,p. 359.
  244. ^Jones 2014,p. 360.
  245. ^Dempsey, Amy (2018).Modern Art.Thames & Hudson. p. 70.ISBN978-0-500-29322-5.
  246. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 164.
  247. ^Hodge 2019,p. 134.
  248. ^Jones 2014,p. 416.
  249. ^Jones 2014,p. 418.
  250. ^Hodge 2019,p. 42.
  251. ^Hodge 2019,p. 425.
  252. ^Hodge 2019,p. 146.
  253. ^Jones 2014,p. 426.
  254. ^Jones 2014,p. 425.
  255. ^Jones 2014,p. 428.
  256. ^Hodge 2019,p. 46.
  257. ^abHodge 2019,p. 47.
  258. ^Hall, William (2019).Stone.Phaidon. p. 79.ISBN978-0-7148-7925-3.
  259. ^Jones 2014,p. 502.
  260. ^Jones 2014,p. 510.
  261. ^Gura, Judith (2017).Postmodern Design Complete.Thames & Hudson. p. 121.ISBN978-0-500-51914-1.
  262. ^Gura, Judith (2017).Postmodern Design Complete.Thames & Hudson. p. 120.ISBN978-0-500-51914-1.
  263. ^Watkin, David (2022).A History of Western Architecture.Laurence King. p. 722.ISBN978-1-52942-030-2.
  264. ^Hodge 2019,p. 531.
  265. ^Hodge 2019,p. 154.
  266. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 205.
  267. ^Hopkins 2014,p. 206.
  268. ^Melvin, Jeremy (2006).…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale(in Romanian). Enciclopedia RAO. p. 137.ISBN973-717-075-X.
  269. ^Husserl,Origins of Geometry,Introduction by Jacques Derrida
  270. ^Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman,Chora L Works(New York: Monacelli Press, 1997)
  271. ^Creating Your Architectural Style.Pelican Publishing. 15 September 2009.ISBN978-1-4556-0309-1.
  272. ^Urban, Florian (2017).The new tenement.New York: Routledge.ISBN978-1-315-40244-4.OCLC1006381281.
  273. ^Dickinson, Duo (2017)."Does the New Traditionalism Have A Point?".Common Edge.Retrieved29 April2021.
  274. ^Wainwright, Oliver (4 March 2020)."The miracle new sustainable product that's revolutionising architecture – stone!".The Guardian.Retrieved29 April2021.

References

edit
Modernism
  • Banham, Reyner (1 Dec 1980).Theory and Design in the First Machine Age.Architectural Press.
  • Curl, James Stevens (2006).A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture(Paperback) (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. p.880.ISBN978-0-19-280630-7.ISBN.
  • Curtis, William J. R. (1987).Modern Architecture Since 1900.Phaidon Press.
  • Frampton, Kenneth (1992).Modern Architecture, a critical history(Third ed.). Thames & Hudson.
  • Jencks, Charles (1993).Modern Movements in Architecture(second ed.). Penguin Books Ltd.
  • Pevsner, Nikolaus (28 Mar 1991).Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius.Penguin Books Ltd.

Further reading

edit
edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toHistory of architecture.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_architecture&oldid=1247407585"