Wikipedia

Hong Xiuquan

In thisChinese name,thefamily nameisHong.

Hong Xiuquan[b](1 January 1814[a]– 1 June 1864), bornHong Huoxiu[c]and with thecourtesy nameRenkun,was a Chineserevolutionaryandreligious leaderwho led theTaiping Rebellionagainst theQing dynasty.He established theTaiping Heavenly Kingdomover large portions of southern China, with himself as its "Heavenly King".

  • Hong Xiuquan
  • Hồng tú toàn
Taiping Heavenly King
Reign11 January 1851 – 1 June 1864
SuccessorHong Tianguifu
BornHong Huoxiu (Hồng hỏa tú)
(1814-01-01)1 January 1814[a]
Hua County,Guangdong, Qing dynasty
Died1 June 1864(1864-06-01)(aged 50)
Tianjing,Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
SpouseLai Xiying (Lại tích anh)[1]orLai Lianying (Lại liên anh)[2]
Names
Hong Xiuquan (Hồng tú toàn)
Era name and dates
Thái bình thiên quốc:11 January 1851 – 1 June 1864
FatherHong Jingyang (Hồng kính dương)[2]
MotherMadam Wang (Vương thị)
ReligionGod Worshipping Society
Hong Xiuquan
ChineseHồngTúToàn
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHóng Xiùquán
Bopomofoㄏㄨㄥˊ ㄒㄧㄡˋ ㄑㄩㄢˊ
Wade–GilesHung2Hsiu4-ch'üan2
Tongyong PinyinHóng Siòu-cyuán
IPA[xʊ̌ŋ ɕjôʊ.tɕʰɥɛ̌n]
Hakka
Pha̍k-fa-sṳFùng Siu-chhiòn
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationHùhng Sauchyùhn
Jyutpinghung4 sau3 cyun4
IPA[hʊŋ˩ sɐw˧ tsʰyn˩]
Courtesy name
ChineseHồngNhânKhôn
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHóng Rénkūn
Bopomofoㄏㄨㄥˊ ㄖㄣˊ ㄎㄨㄣ
Wade–GilesHung2Jen2-k'un1
Tongyong PinyinHóng Rén-kun
IPA[xʊ̌ŋ ɻə̌n.kʰwə́n]
Hakka
Pha̍k-fa-sṳFùng Yìn-khûn
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationHùhng Yàhnkwān
Jyutpinghung4 jan4 kwan1
IPA[hʊŋ˩ jɐn˩ kʷʰɐn˥]
Birth name
ChineseHồngHỏaTú
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinHóng Huǒxiù
Bopomofoㄏㄨㄥˊ ㄏㄨㄛˇ ㄒㄧㄡˋ
Wade–GilesHung2Huo3-hsiu4
Tongyong PinyinHóng Huǒ-siòu
IPA[xʊ̌ŋ xwò.ɕjôʊ]
Hakka
Pha̍k-fa-sṳFùng Fósiu

Born into aHakkafamily inGuangzhou,Hong claimed to have experienced mystical visions after failing theimperial examinations.He came to believe that his celestial father he saw in the visions wasGod the Father,his celestial elder brother wasJesus Christ,and he had been directed to rid the world of demon worship. He rejectedConfucianismand began propagating a fusion of Christianity,Daoismandmillenarianism,which Hong presented as a restoration of the ancient Chinese faith inShangdi.[3][4][5]His associateFeng Yunshanthen founded theGod Worshipping Societyto spread Hong's teachings. By 1850, Hong's sect had over 10,000 followers and increasingly came into conflict with Qing authorities.

In January 1851, Hong organized a rebel army and routed the Qing forces atJintian,marking the beginning of the Taiping Rebellion. He then declared himself the Heavenly King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace. Taiping rebels captured the city ofNanjingin March 1853 and declared it theHeavenly Capitalof the kingdom, after which Hong withdrew to his new palace and began ruling through proclamations. He became increasingly suspicious ofYang Xiuqing,his fellow Taiping leader, and engineered Yang's murder in a1856 purgethat spiraled into the further purge of more Taiping leaders. The kingdom gradually lost ground and in June 1864, in the face of Qing advance, Hong died following a period of illness and was succeeded by his son,Hong Tianguifu.Nanjing fella month later.

Early life and education

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Hong Xiuquan, born "Hong Huoxiu", was the third and youngest son of aHakkafamily living in the village of Fuyuan Springs (also referred to as Fuyuanshui village[6]), Hua county (now part ofHuadu District) inGuangzhou.His father was Hong Jingyang, a farmer and electedheadmanand his mother was surnamed Wang.[7][8][9]No less than nine different dates are given for Hong Xiuquan's birth:Jian Youwenestablished based on documentary evidence that Hong was born on 1 January 1814. This date is accepted by most scholars, including noted Chinese historianLuo Ergang.[1]Some sources claim his family was "well to do".[10]He and his family moved to Guanlubu Village shortly after his birth.[1]Upon marrying his wife Lai Xiying, Hong received the courtesy name "Renkun."[1]His sister,Hong Xuanjiao,became the commander of the female battalion during theTaiping Rebellion.[1]

Hong showed an interest in scholarship at an early age, so his family made financial sacrifices to provide a formal education for him, in the hope that he could one day complete all of thecivil service examinations.[6]Hong began studying at a primary school in his village at the age of five.[11]He was able to recite theFour Booksafter five or six years. He then took the local entry-level civil service examinations and placed first.[12]A few years later, he traveled to the provincial capital ofGuangzhouto take the provincial examinations.[12]He was unsuccessful and, his parents being unable to afford to continue his education, he was forced to return to agricultural work.[12]The next year, he accompanied a wealthy schoolmate elsewhere for a year of study and became a village schoolteacher upon his return.[12]

In 1836, at the age of 22, Hong returned to Guangzhou to retake the imperial examinations.[12]While in Guangzhou, Hong heardEdwin Stevens,a foreign missionary, and his interpreter preaching about Christianity.[13]From them, Hong received a set of pamphlets entitled "Good Words for Exhorting the Age", which were written byLiang Fa,Stevens's assistant, and contained excerpts from the Bible along with homilies and other material prepared by Liang.[14]Supposedly, Hong only briefly looked over these pamphlets and did not pay much attention to them at the time.[6]Unsurprisingly, he again failed the imperial examinations, which had a pass rate of less than one percent.[15]

Visions and iconoclasm

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In 1837, Hong attempted and failed the imperial examinations for a third time, leading to anervous breakdown.[16]He was delirious for days to the point that his family feared for his life.[17]Whileconvalescing,Hong dreamed of visiting Heaven, where he discovered that he possessed a celestial family distinct from his earthly family, which included a heavenly father, mother, elder brother, sister-in-law, wife, and son.[18]His heavenly father, wearing a blackdragon robeand high-brimmed hat with a long golden beard, lamented that men were worshiping demons rather than he himself, and presented Hong with a sword and golden seal with which to slay the demons infesting Heaven.[19]Furthermore, he did so with the help of his celestial older-brother and a heavenly army.[19]The father figure later informed Hong that his given name violated taboos and had to be changed, suggesting as one option the "Hong Xiuquan" moniker ultimately adopted by Hong.[20]In later embellishments, Hong would declare that he also sawConfuciusbeing punished by Hong's celestial father for leading the people astray.[21]His acquaintances would later claim that after awakening from his dreams Hong became more careful, friendly, and open, while his pace became imposing and firm and his height and size increased.[17][22]Hong stopped studying for the imperial examinations and sought work as a teacher. For the next several years Hong taught at several schools around the area of his hometown.

In 1843, Hong failed the imperial examinations for the fourth and final time.[23]It was only then, prompted by a visit by his cousin, that Hong took time to carefully examine the Christian pamphlets he had received.[24]After reading these pamphlets, Hong came to believe that they had given him the key to interpreting his visions: his celestial father wasGod the Father(whom he identified withShangdifrom Chinese tradition), the elder brother that he had seen wasJesus Christ,and he had been directed to rid the world of demon worship.[25][26]This interpretation led him to conclude that he was the literal son of God and younger brother to Jesus.[27]In contrast to some of the later leaders of his movement, Hong appears to have genuinely believed in his ascent to Heaven and divine mission.[28]After coming to this conclusion Hong began destroying idols and enthusiastically preaching his interpretation of Christianity.[6]As a symbolic gesture to purge China of Confucianism, he and the cousin asked for two giant swords, threechi(1 meter (3.3 ft)) long and ninejin(about 4.5 kg), called the "demon-slaying swords" (Trảm yêu kiếm), to be forged.[29]

Hong began by burning allConfucianandBuddhist statuesand books in his house, and began preaching to his community about his visions. Some of his earliest converts were relatives of his who had also failed their examinations and belonged to the Hakka minority,Feng YunshanandHong Rengan.[30]He collaborated with them to destroy holy statues in small villages, to the ire of local citizens and officials. Hong and his converts' acts were consideredsacrilegiousand they were persecuted by Confucians who forced them to leave their positions as village tutors. In April 1844, Hong, Feng Yunshan, and two other relatives of Hong left Hua county to travel and preach.[31]They first journeyed to Guangzhou and preached in the outlying areas before heading northwest to White Tiger Village.[32]There, Hong and Feng Yunshan parted ways before traveling some 400 kilometers (250 mi) to the southwest to the village of Sigu,Guiping county,Guangxi,where distant relatives of Hong's resided, including two early converts who had returned home.[32]It is in or near Sigu that Hong begins to draft "Exhortations to Worship the One True God", his first substantial work.[33]In November 1844, after having preached in Guangxi for five months, Hong returned home without Feng and resumed his previous job as a village teacher, while continuing to write religious tracts.[34]

The "God Worshippers"

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In 1847, Hong Xiuquan was invited by a member of the Chinese Union to study with the AmericanSouthern Baptistmissionary ReverendIssachar Jacox Roberts.[35]Hong accepted the invitation and traveled to Guangzhou with his cousin, Hong Rengan.[35]Once there, Hong studiedKarl Gützlaff'stranslations of the Old and New Testaments, converted to Protestantism[36]and requested to be baptized by Roberts.[35]Roberts refused to do so, possibly due to Hong being tricked by the other converts into requesting monetary aid from Roberts.[35]Hong left Guangzhou on 12 July 1847 to search for Feng Yunshan.[37]Although robbed of all of his possessions, including his demon-slaying sword, by bandits in the town ofMeizixun,[where?]he eventually reachedThistle Mountainon 27 August 1847.[38]There, he reunited with Feng and discovered the "Society of God-Worshippers" that Feng had founded.[39]

In January 1848, Feng Yunshan was arrested and banished toGuangdong,and Hong Xiuquan left for Guangdong shortly thereafter to once again reunite with Feng.[40]In Feng and Hong's absence,Yang XiuqingandXiao Chaoguijointly emerged to lead the "God Worshipers" themselves.[41]Both claimed to enter trances which allowed them to speak as a member of theTrinity;God the Father in the case of Yang and Jesus Christ in the case of Xiao.[41]When Hong and Feng returned in the summer of 1849, they investigated Yang and Xiao's claims and declared them to be genuine.[42]Hong ministered to the faithful in outdoor meetings strongly resembling the Baptist tent revivals he had witnessed with Issachar Roberts.[43]

Most of Hong Xiuquan's knowledge of the scriptures came from the books known as "Good Words to Admonish the Age" written by the Chinese preacherLiang Fa,as well as a localized Bible translated into Chinese. Many Western missionaries grew jealous of Hong and his local ministry. These competing missionaries were fond of spreading defamatory rumors such as his "lack of baptism." (Hong and his cousin were in fact both baptized according to the way prescribed in the pamphlet "Good words to admonish the age" ).[44]

In 1847, Hong began his translation and adaptation of the Bible, what came to be known as "Authorized Taiping Version of the Bible", or "The Taiping Bible",which he based on Gutzlaff's translation. He presented his followers with the Bible as a vision of the authentic religion that had existed in ancient China before it was wiped out by Confucius and the imperial system. The deity of the Old Testament punished evil nations and rewarded those who followed his commandments, even music, food, and marriage laws.[45]

Hong made some minor changes in the text, such as correcting misprints and improving the prose style, but adapted the meaning elsewhere to fit his own theology and moral teachings. For instance, in Genesis 27:25 the Israelites did not drink wine, and in Genesis 38:16–26 he omitted the sexual relations between the father and his son's widow.[45]Hong preached a mixture of communal utopianism,evangelismand oriental syncretism. While proclaiming sexual equality, the sect segregated men from women and encouraged all its followers to pay their assets into a communal treasury.[46][47]

When Hong returned to Guangxi, he found thatFeng Yunshanhad accumulated a following of around 2,000 converts. Guangxi was a dangerous area at this time with many bandit groups based in the mountains and pirates on the rivers. Perhaps due to these more pressing concerns, the authorities were largely tolerant of Hong and his followers. However, the instability of the region meant that Hong's followers were inevitably drawn into conflict with other groups, not least because of their predominantly Hakka ethnicity. There are records of numerous incidents when local villages and clans, as well as groups of pirates and bandits, came into conflict with the authorities, and responded by fleeing to join Hong's movement. The rising tension between the sect and the authorities was probably the most important factor in Hong's eventual decision to rebel.

Rebellion and the Heavenly Kingdom

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Main articles:Taiping RebellionandTaiping Heavenly Kingdom
Alleged[d]drawing of Hong Xiuquan, dating from around the early 1850s

By 1850, Hong had between 10,000 and 30,000 followers. The authorities were alarmed at the growing size of the sect, and ordered them to disperse. A local force was sent to attack them when they refused, but the imperial troops were routed and a deputy magistrate killed. A full-scale attack was launched by government forces in the first month of 1851, in what came to be known as theJintian Uprising,named after the town of Jintian (which becameGuiping,Guangxi) where the sect was based. Hong's followers emerged victorious and beheaded theManchucommander of the government army. Hong declared the founding of the "Heavenly Kingdom of Transcendent Peace" on 11 January 1851. Despite this evidence of planning, Hong and his followers faced immediate challenges. The localGreen Standard Armyoutnumbered them ten to one, and had recruited the help of the river pirates to keep the rebellion contained to Jintian. After a month of preparation the rebels managed to break through the blockade and fight their way to the town of Yongan (distinct fromplaces named Yong'an), which fell to them on 25 September 1851.

Hong and his troops remained in Yongan for three months, sustained by local landowners who were hostile to the Manchu-ruled Qing dynasty. The imperial army regrouped and launched another attack on the rebels in Yongan. Having run out of gunpowder, Hong's followers fought their way out by sword, and made for the city ofGuilin,to which they laidsiege.However, the fortifications of Guilin proved too strong, and Hong and his followers eventually gave up and set out northwards, towardsHunan.Here, they encountered an elite militia created by a local member of the gentry specifically to put down peasant rebellions. The two forces fought at Soyi Ford on 10 June 1852; the rebels were forced into retreat, and 20% of their troops were killed. However, in March 1853, Hong's forces managed to takeNanjingand turned it into the capital of their movement.

After establishing his capital at Nanjing, Hong implemented an ambitious reform and modernization program. He created an elaborate civil bureaucracy, reformed the calendar used in his kingdom, outlawed opium use, and introduced a number of reforms designed to make women more socially equal to men.[6]Hong ruled by making frequent proclamations from his Heavenly Palace, demanding strict compliance with various moral and religious rules. Most trade was suppressed, and some communal land ownership was introduced.Polygamywas forbidden and men and women were separated, although Hong and other leaders maintained groups of concubines.

Yang Xiuqing,also known as the "Eastern King", was a fellow Taiping leader who had directed successful military campaigns, and who often claimed to speak with the voice of God. Hong became increasingly suspicious of Yang's ambitions and his network of spies. In 1856, he and others in the Taiping élite had Yang and his familymurdered in a purgethat subsequently spun out of control, resulting in the further purge of its main perpetrator Wei Changhui.[49][50]

Following a failed attempt by the Taiping rebels to take Shanghai in 1860, Qing government forces, aided by Western officers, slowly gained ground.

Death

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In the spring of 1864, Tianjing was besieged and dangerously low on food supplies.[51]Hong's solution was to order his subjects to eatmanna,which had been translated into Chinese as sweetened dew and a medicinal herb.[52]Hong himself gathered weeds from the grounds of his palace, which he then ate.[53]Hong fell ill in April 1864, possibly due to his ingestion of the weeds, and died on 1 June 1864.[53]Although Hong likely died of his illness, suicide by poison has also been suggested.[53][54]He was buried in a yellow-silk shroud without a coffin according to Taiping custom,[53]near the formerMing Imperial Palace.He was succeeded by his teenage son,Hong Tianguifu.[53]

On 30 July 1864, Qing forces exhumed, beheaded, and cremated Hong Xiuquan's body. Zeng Guofan had ordered this done to verify Hong Xiuquan's death. The ashes were blasted out of a cannon to ensure that his remains had no resting place, as eternal punishment for the uprising.[55]

Legacy

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A statue of Hong inNanjing

Views and opinions on Hong differ greatly. TheCommunistsunderMao Zedonggenerally admired Hong and his rebellion as a legitimate peasant uprising that anticipated their own.[56]Sun Yat-sencame from the same area as Hong and was said to have identified with Hong since his childhood days.[56]

To honor his legacy, thePeople's Republic of Chinaestablished a small museum in 1959, the "Hong Xiuquan's Former Residence Memorial Museum" (Hồng tú toàn cố cư kỷ niệm quán), in his birthplace, where there is alongantree planted by him. The museum's plate is written by the famous literary figureGuo Moruo(1892–1978). The residence and Book Chamber Building were renovated in 1961.

There has been an active academic debate on the degree to which Hong is similar or dissimilar toFalun GongfounderLi Hongzhi.Scholars that promote the opinion that a strong similarity exists between Li and Hong note that both rallied a large number of people behind a religious or spiritual cause in order to challenge thestatus quo.Scholars disputing a close relationship note that Li's political intentions are debatable.[57]

Publications

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  • Imperial Decree of Taiping(《 thái bình chiếu thư 》) (1852)
  • TheInstructions on the Original WaySeries (《 nguyên đạo tỉnh thế huấn 》 hệ liệt) (1845–1848): included in theImperial Decree of Taipinglater. The series is proclaimed by the People's Republic of China's National Affairs Department to be a Protected National Significant Document in 1988.
    • Instructions on the Original Way to Save the World(《 nguyên đạo cứu thế huấn 》)
    • Instructions on the Original Way to Awake the World(《 nguyên đạo tỉnh thế huấn 》)
    • Instructions on the Original Way to Make the World Realize(《 nguyên đạo giác thế huấn 》)
  • The Heavenly Father's poem(《 thiên phụ thi 》) (1857)
  • New Essay on Economics and Politics(《 tư chính tân thiên 》) (1859)

Poetry

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The following poem, titledPoem on Executing the Evil and Preserving the Righteous(Trảm tà lưu chính thi), written in 1837 by Hong Xiuquan, illustrates his religious thinking and goal that later led to the establishment of the "Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping". Note that in the seventh line, the name of the then yet-to-come kingdom is mentioned.

《 trảm tà lưu chính thi 》

Poem on Executing the Evil and Preserving the Righteous

Thủ ác càn khôn sát phạt quyền,

In my hand I wield the Universe and the power to attack and kill,

Trảm tà lưu chính giải dân huyền.

I slay the evil, preserve the righteous, and relieve the people's suffering.

Nhãn thông tây bắc giang sơn ngoại,

My eyes see through beyond the west, the north, the rivers, and the mountains,

Thanh chấn đông nam nhật nguyệt biên.

My voice shakes the east, the south, the Sun, and the Moon.

Tỉ kiếm quang vinh tồn đế tứ,

The glorious sword of authority was given by the Lord,

Thi chương bằng cư tụng gia tiền,

Poems and books are evidences that praiseYahwehin front of Him.

Thái bình nhất thống quang thế giới,

Taiping [Perfect Peace] unifies the World of Light,

Uy phong khoái nhạc vạn thiên niên.

The domineering air will be joyous for myriads of millennia.

See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related toHong Xiuquan.

References

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Notes

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  1. ^abNo less that 9 dates have been given for Hong Xiuquan's birth: 1 January 1814 is accepted by most scholars, includingJian YouwenandLuo Ergang.[1]
  2. ^Chinese:Hồng tú toàn;pinyin:Hóng Xiùquán,Pha̍k-fa-sṳ:Fùng Siu-chhiòn
  3. ^Chinese:Hồng hỏa tú;pinyin:Hóng Huǒxiù,Pha̍k-fa-sṳ:Fùng Fó-siu
  4. ^According to P. Richard Bohr, this is a Woodblock print of an unidentified Taiping leader.[48]

Citations

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  1. ^abcdefJen 1973,p. 10.
  2. ^ab"Hồng thiên quý phúc thân thư tự thuật, thi cú"(PDF).jds.cssn.cn(in Chinese). 1 September 1997.
  3. ^Spence (1996),pp. 78–80.
  4. ^Kilcourse (2016),p.[page needed].
  5. ^Reilly (2004),p.4.
  6. ^abcdeLi 2012,p. 165.
  7. ^Michael & Chang 1966,pp. 21–22.
  8. ^Jen 1973,pp. 11–12.
  9. ^Spence 1996,p. 27.
  10. ^Wakeman, Frederic Jr. (1975).The Fall of Imperial China.Free Press.ISBN978-0029336908.
  11. ^Jen 1973,p. 12.
  12. ^abcdeJen 1973,p. 13.
  13. ^Jen 1973,p. 14.
  14. ^Jen 1973,pp. 14–15.
  15. ^Gray 1990,p. 55.
  16. ^Jen 1973,pp. 15–18.
  17. ^abMichael & Chang 1966,p. 23.
  18. ^Spence 1996,pp. 47–48.
  19. ^abSpence 1996,p. 48.
  20. ^Spence 1996,p. 49.
  21. ^Michael & Chang 1966,p. 28.
  22. ^Hamberg, Theodore (1854).The Visions of Hung-Siu-tshuen and Origin of the Kwang-si Insurrection.Hong Kong. p. 14.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  23. ^Jen 1973,p. 19.
  24. ^Jen 1973,p. 20.
  25. ^De Bary, William Theodore; Lufrano, Richard (2000).Sources of Chinese Tradition.Vol. 2. Columbia University Press. pp. 213–215.ISBN978-0-231-11271-0.
  26. ^Spence 1996,p. 64.
  27. ^Spence 1996,p. 65.
  28. ^Michael & Chang 1966,p. 36.
  29. ^Spence 1996,p. 67 "The two men discuss Hong's dream, and feel that some of it, at least, can be understood literally. So together they ordered a local craftsman to forge two double-edged swords – each sword nine pounds in weight, and three feet in length – with three characters carved upon each blade, 'Sword for exterminating demons'."
  30. ^Spence 1996,p. 67.
  31. ^Spence 1996,p. 69.
  32. ^abSpence 1996,p. 71.
  33. ^Spence 1996,p. 72.
  34. ^Spence 1996,pp. 78–79.
  35. ^abcdSpence 1996,p. 93.
  36. ^China a to Z: Everything You Need to Know to Understand Chinese Customs and Culture.Penguin. 25 November 2014.ISBN978-0142180846.
  37. ^Spence 1996,pp. 93–94.
  38. ^Spence 1996,pp. 94–95.
  39. ^Spence 1996,p. 95.
  40. ^Michael & Chang 1966,pp. 34–37.
  41. ^abMichael & Chang 1966,p. 35.
  42. ^Michael & Chang 1966,p. 37.
  43. ^Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2010).The Wobbling Pivot: China Since 1800.p.104.
  44. ^Michael & Chang 1966,p. 25.
  45. ^abReilly 2004,pp. 74–79.
  46. ^Michael & Chang 1966,p. 47.
  47. ^Michael 1966,p. 68.
  48. ^Bohr, P. Richard (2009)."Did the Hakka Save China? Ethnicity, Identity, and Minority Status in China's Modern Transformation".Headwaters.26.College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University:13.
  49. ^Kuhn 1978.
  50. ^(Cambridge University Press, 1978). Cambridge Histories Online. Cambridge University Press.
  51. ^Spence 1996,p. 324.
  52. ^Spence 1996,pp. 324–325.
  53. ^abcdeSpence 1996,p. 325.
  54. ^Michael & Chang 1966,p. 173.
  55. ^Spence 1996,p. 371.
  56. ^abCohen 2003,p. 212.
  57. ^Porter, Noah (2003).Falun Gong in the United States: An Ethnographic Study.Universal-Publishers. pp. 89–92.ISBN978-1-58112-190-2.

Bibliography

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Regnal titles
Preceded by
Position established
 Heavenly King of Taiping
1851-1864 		Succeeded by
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