TheIndian vultureorlong-billed vulture(Gyps indicus) is abird of preynative to theIndian subcontinent.It is anOld World vulturebelonging to the family ofAccipitridae.It is a medium-sized vulture with a small, semi-bald head with little feathers, long beak, and wide dark colored wings. It breeds mainly on small cliffs and hilly crags incentral Indiaandsouth India.
| Indian vulture | |
|---|---|
| |
| Indian vulture | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Accipitriformes |
| Family: | Accipitridae |
| Genus: | Gyps |
| Species: | G. indicus
|
| Binomial name | |
| Gyps indicus | |
| |
| Distribution in purple | |
The Indian vulture is akeystone speciesthat has been listed asCritically Endangeredon theIUCN Red Listsince 2002, as the population has severely declined during theIndian vulture crisis.It is estimated that there are 5,000-15,000 mature individuals in the wild. The main cause of the decline was identified as kidney failure caused by the drugdiclofenac,which was commonly given to cattle to reduce joint pain. It is thought that diclofenac poisoned vultures that ate the flesh of dead cattle. Diclofenac bans were enacted inIndia,PakistanandNepalin 2006.
The bird shares its habitat with two other vulture species (namely, theslender-billed vulture(Gyps tenuirostris) andwhite-rumped vulture(Gyps bengalensis)) in some parts of its range.
Taxonomy
editThe Indian vulture is placed in the genusGyps(old world vultures), and gets both its common and specific scientific names from its nativity to theIndian subcontinent.[3]The genus name is fromAncient Greekgupsmeaning "vulture" and the species name is Neo-Latinindicusfrom the Ancient Greek "indikós" meaning "Indian".[4]
Theslender-billed vulture(Gyps tenuirostris) was a sub-species of Indian vulture until 2001. Based onnuclearandmitochondrialDNA evidence, it was separated into a different species from the Indian vulture in 2001.[5][6][7]
Distribution and habitat
editThe range of the Indian vulture extended from southeasternPakistanto southIndiaand toIndochinaand the northernMalay Peninsulain the east.[8]It is now extinct inSouth East Asiawith current populations existing mostly incentralandpeninsular India,south of theGangetic plains.It is also found in southwest Pakistan,BangladeshandNepal.[6][8]
It is also found in various land-forms ranging from semi-desertto dry foot hills, open fields and cultivable lands near villages, near garbage dumps and slaughter houses in urban areas.[9][10]They are not migratory but travel hundreds of miles in a day scavenging for food. Indian vultures nest on cliffs or high buildings and rarely on trees.[10]
Description
edit
The Indian vulture is bulky and medium in size. Its body andcovert feathersare pale brown with darkerflight feathers.It has white thighs with scattered white fluff and broad wings with short tail feathers.[11]It has a small, bare, dark-brown head with a long featherless neck, dark eyes and a long yellowishbeakwith a pale green-yellowcere.[8][12]It is 89–103 cm (35–41 in) long and has a wing span of 2.22–2.58 m (7 ft 3 in – 8 ft 6 in).[9]
The bald heads allow them to maintain body temperature in response to the environment. When it is cold, they tuck their necks in closer to their bodies to keep them warm and when it is hot, they extend their necks.[8]Indian vultures have very few feathers on their heads which help them to keep their heads clean when they stick them into the rotting carcasses to feed.[8]
It weighs 5.5–6.3 kg (12–14 lb) and is comparatively smaller than theEurasian griffon.It is distinguished from that species by its less bulky body andwing coverts.[13]
Behaviour and ecology
editThe Indian vulture is a powerful flier and soars onthermalconvection currents. It reaches speeds of 35 km/h (22 mph) when gliding and can fly for six to seven hours continuously.[14]The Indian vulture nests mainly on cliffs and is usually found is small flocks, sometimes with other vulture species.[12]
Diet and feeding
edit
The Indian vulture is akeystone speciesin its habitats and is ascavengingbird, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead animals.[15]It plays a crucial role in the ecosystem by removing rotting meat that would otherwise spread disease.[16]It covers wide areas sometimes ranging hundreds of miles in search of carcasses and mainly uses its eye sight to spot the same.[12]
They are often attracted to large gatherings of other raptors or scavengers as this usually means that there is acarrionnearby. The Indian vultures generally feed on dead cattle and any leftovers by large predators. Individual birds often fight with each other to maintain the best position at the carcass. As Indian long-billed vultures are comparatively smaller than some other species, they have to sometimes back down to let other larger birds.[8]
Lifespan and mortality
editIndian vultures have a lifespan of 40 to 45 years. They sexually mature at five years of age.[17]While vultures in the wild might have a longer lifespan, they are increasingly found close to human habitats. In the human habitats, Indian vultures are prone to higher mortality due toroad kills,electrocutionon high power lines, collision with trains and other high structures such aswindmills.[18][19][20]Apart from this, major cause of death has beenNSAIDsincludingDiclofenaccommonly given to cattle to reduce joint pain which believed to have been passed onto the vultures thorough the flesh of dead cattle causingkidney failureand death in vultures.[15]
Reproduction
edit
Indian vultures nest on cliffs, high buildings, and, more rarely, on trees. They sometimes build nests on old monuments and towers.[10][21][8]A platform of sticks or twigs lined with leaves with the addition of green leaves advertising nest occupancy and fend off parasites.[21]
Indian vultures reach breeding age at about five years old. Nest building starts in September and breeding happens between November and March.[21]They often breed inmonogamouspairs and the females lay only one egg a year.[22]The egg is pure white or mottled with rusty spots. Both the parents take turns in incubating the egg and the egg hatches in about 50 days.[10]The nests are often located near water sources such as rivers, lakes or ponds to enable them to maintain the humidity levels in the nests. The nests are located at higher altitudes with nearly 90% of the nests at an altitude of more than 900m.[citation needed]
Status and conservation
editPopulation decline and recovery
edit
Beginning in the 1990s, the Indian vulture species suffered a 97% population decrease in its range in theIndian subcontinentover a period of 10–15 years.[23]The species is classified ascritically endangeredin theIUCN Red Listsince 2002 due to the rapid decline in population.[1]Currently, there are only an estimated 5000 to 15000 birds in the wild.[24]
This is conjunction with the rapid decline in the population of other related vulture species including theslender-billed vultureandwhite-rumped vulture.Between 2000 and 2007, the annual decline rates of this species averaged over sixteen percent.[24]The cause of this rapid decline was identified as poisoning caused by the veterinary drugdiclofenac.Diclofenac is anon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugcommonly given to cattle to reduce joint pain. The drug is believed to have been passed onto the vultures thorough the flesh of dead cattle who were given diclofenac in their last days of life which then causeskidney failurein vultures.[15]
Data modelling revealed that a tiny proportion (about 0.8%) of livestock carcasses containing diclofenac can cause significant crash in vulture populations.[22]The decline in vulture population had a hugesocio-economicimpact in the region and drastically affected the conservation of the ecological balance. By removing allcarrion,vultures had helped decrease pollution, spread of diseases, and suppressed undesirable mammalian scavengers.[25]Without vultures, a large number of animal carcasses were left to rot, posing a serious risk to human health by contaminating water supply and providing a potential breeding ground for infectious germs and proliferation of pests such as rats.[26]The loss of vultures also resulted in a substantial increase in the population of feral dogs, whose bites are the most common cause of humanrabies.The feral dog population in India increased by least 5 million, resulting in over 38 million additional dog bites and more than 47,000 extra deaths from rabies, costing $34 billion in economic impact.[15]On average, it was estimated that humanmortality ratesincreased by more than 4% during the period of 2000 to 2005, when vulture population reached the lowest levels.[27]
In March 2006, thegovernment of Indiaannounced a ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac.Meloxicam,another NSAID was rapidly metabolized and harmless to vultures was suggested as an acceptable substitute for diclofenac.[28]Nepal banned the manufacture and importation of diclofenac in June 2006 and Pakistan followed suit in September 2006.[29]Pharmaceutical companies were encouraged to the increase in the production of meloxicam aimed at reducing the cost down to diclofenac's own levels to make it more suitable for use. In 2015, the government of India ordered the vial size of the drugs to be reduced to 3ml to reduce the dosage administered to cattle.[22]In 2021,tolfenamic acidwas identified as another alternative that is safe for vultures.[30][15]
After banning the drug in 2006, the vulture population rebounded and with the combined population relatively stable till 2011. But, further decline of vulture populations were reported in some states inIndia.[6]Despite the banning of diclofenac and reduction in usage by about 50%, the drug was still available for veterinary use.[31]There were other compounds likeaceclofenacandketoprofenwhich were in use and were harmful.[32]In 2008, the government of India enacted a law declaring the sale of diclofenac as a imprisonable offense.[15]Later surveys found that the population was recovering slowly and the decline has been significantly slowed in India, Pakistan and Nepal following a strict ban on the drug.[6][15][33]
Conservation
editCaptive-breeding programmes for the Indian vulture were started to help recover its numbers. As the vultures are long-lived, slow-breeding and notoriously difficult to breed in captivity, the programmes are expected to take longer.[34]The captive-bred birds will be released to the wild when the environment is clear of diclofenac.
In 2014,Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinctionprogramme was announced to start releasing captive-bred birds into the wild by 2016.[35]In 2016,Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre, Pinjorereleased captive bred vultures into the wild as part of Asia's first vulture re-introduction program.[36]Small numbers of birds have bred across peninsular India, inKarnatakaandTamil Nadu.[37]Three more breeding centers have been setup in the Indian states ofWest Bengal,AssamandMadhya Pradeshin addition to four smaller facilities in collaboration with zoos.[22]
In 2020, theMinistry of Environment, Forest and Climate Changeof Government of India has launched a Vulture Action Plan 2020-25. It aims to step up conservation measures and set up a mechanism to ensure that toxic drugs other than diclofenac are also banned for veterinary use.[32]
In 2010, a small population of Indian vulture and three other species ofvultureswere discovered in the Moyar river valley inSathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary,where 20 nests were sighted with a population of 40 adults. It was last sighted in the region in the 1970s and the rediscovery is significant to its conservation.[38]
Cultural and economic significance
edit
Indian vultures are often misunderstood, feared and considered as lowly creatures largely due to their eating habits of feeding oncarrion.[39]They play a key ecological role as akeystone speciesand serve as effective scavengers. In theIndian subcontinent,where there is a large population of cattle and few facilities for incineration and carcass processing, vultures effectively clean up the carcasses offering health benefits and save economical costs.[40]
Jatayuis a demigod in theHinduepicRamayana,who has the form of either an eagle or a vulture.[41]
The people ofParsicommunity in India leave the dead bodies exposed in high towers calledTower of Silencein order for the vultures to feed.[42]
References
edit- ^abBirdLife International (2021)."Gyps indicus".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2021:e.T22729731A204672586.Retrieved30 May2022.
- ^Scopoli, J. A. (1786–88)."Aves".Deliciae Flora et Fauna Insubricae Ticini. An account including new descriptions of the birds and mammals collected by Pierre Sonnerat on his voyages.London: C. J. Clay. pp. 7–18.
- ^Del Hoyo, J.; Collar, N. J. (2014).Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World.Vol. 2. Spain: Lynx Edicions.ISBN9788496553989.
- ^Jobling, J. A. (2009).The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names.London: Christopher Helm. pp. 183, 205.ISBN9781408125014.
- ^O'Neal Campbell, M. (2015).Vultures, their Evolution, Ecology and Conservation.CRC Press. p. 16.ISBN9781482223620.
- ^abcdBirdLife International."Indian Vulture factsheet".BirdLife International.Retrieved25 August2023.
- ^Rasmussen, P. C.; Parry, S. J. (2001).The taxonomic status of the "Long-billed" VultureGyps indicus.p. 18.
- ^abcdefg"Explore Raptors species".Peregrine fund.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^abFerguson-Lees, J. & Christie, D. A. (2001).Raptors of the World.Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 124.ISBN0618127623.
- ^abcdScott, D. (2020).Raptor Medicine, Surgery, and Rehabilitation(Third ed.). CABI. p. 42.ISBN9781789246100.
- ^BirdLife International (2011).The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Birds.Dorling Kindersley. p. 191.ISBN9781405336161.
- ^abcGrewal, B.; Harvey, B. & Pfister, O. (2014).Photographic Guide to the Birds of India and the Indian Subcontinent.Tuttle Publishing. p. 186.ISBN9781462914852.
- ^"The Peregrine Fund".The Peregrine Fund. 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 26 May 2011.Retrieved31 May2011.
- ^"The Indian Long-Billed Vulture".bestanimalreports.com. 5 September 2021.Retrieved26 August2023.
- ^abcdefgBurfield, I. & Bowden, C. (2022)."South Asian vultures and diclofenac".Cambridge University.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^"Exploring keystone species".HHMI.Retrieved26 August2023.
- ^"Vulture culture: Rescuing the big bird".Economic Times.24 November 2018.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^"Deaths of vultures by electrocution go unchecked in Tanahun".Kathmandu post. 23 January 2022.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^"Four vultures die in Jaisalmer after hitting windmill, wires".Times of India.4 February 2021.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^"Train hits vultures in Jaisalmer, 4 killed".Times of India.17 November 2022.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^abcKushwaha, S. (2016)."Utilisation of green plant material in nests of Long-billed VulturesGyps indicusin Bundelkhand Region, India ".Vulture News.71.Indian Biodiversity Conservation Society.
- ^abcdIyer, K. (2021)."Born to be wild: India's first captive-bred endangered vultures set free".The Guardian.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^Hirschfeld, E.; Swash, A.; Still, R. (2013).The World's Rarest Birds.Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 110.ISBN9781400844906.
- ^ab"BirdLife Fact Sheet: Indian vulture".BirdLife International.Retrieved11 August2014.
- ^Prakash, V.; Bishwakarma, M. C.; Chaudhary, A.; Cuthbert, R.; Dave, R.; Kulkarni, M.; Kumar, S.; Paudel, K. & Ranade, S. (2012)."The Population decline ofGypsVultures in India and Nepal has slowed since veterinary use of Diclofenac was banned ".PLOS ONE.7(11): e49118.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...749118P.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049118.PMC3492300.PMID23145090.
- ^Prakash, V.; Pain, D.J.; Cunningham, A.A.; Donald, P.F.; Prakash, N.; Verma, A.; Gargi, R.; Sivakumar, S. & Rahmani, A.R. (2003). "Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backedGyps bengalensisand long-billedGyps indicusvulture populations ".Biological Conservation.109(3): 381–390.Bibcode:2003BCons.109..381P.doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00164-7.
- ^"How human and ecosystem health are intertwined: Evidence from vulture population collapse in India".Voxdev. 2023.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^Adawaren, E. O.; Mukandiwa, L.; Chipangura, J.; Wolter, K.; Naidoo, V. (2019)."Percentage of faecal excretion of meloxicam in the Cape vultures (Gyps corprotheres) ".Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology.215:41–46.doi:10.1016/j.cbpc.2018.10.001.hdl:2263/67172.PMID30336288.S2CID53011740.
- ^McGrath, S. (2007)."The Vanishing".Smithsonian Magazine.
- ^Pinjarkar, V. (2021)."Second vulture-safe veterinary pain-killer drug identified".Times of India.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^Jagga, R. (2011)."Banned diclofenac still kills vultures".Express India.Retrieved11 August2014.
- ^ab"Diclofenac threat to 7 vulture species".Tribune India. 2023.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^Ghai, R. (2019)."Madhya Pradesh's vulture population increases".Times of India.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^Central zoo Authority(PDF)(Report).Retrieved1 November2023.
- ^Kinver, M. (2014)."Project targets 2016 for Asian vultures release".BBC News.Retrieved2 February2014.
- ^"Asia's first vulture re-introduction programme launched in Haryana".3 June 2016.
- ^Oppili, P. (2013)."Long-billed Vulture sighted after 40 years".The Hindu.Retrieved11 August2014.
- ^Ramakrishnan, B.; Ramasubramanian, S.; Saravanan, M.; Arivazhagan, C. (2010). "Is diclofenac the only culprit for declining population ofGypsvultures in the Moyar Valley ".Current Science.99(12): 1645–1646.
- ^"Waiting for the vulture".The Hindu.28 October 2020.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^"'Vultures are often misunderstood; they play a key ecological role providing society with health benefits'".Times of India.10 April 2020.Retrieved23 August2023.
- ^"Jatayu, Jaṭāyu, Jatāyū: 19 definitions".www.wisdomlib.org.15 June 2012.Retrieved31 May2022.
- ^"Death in the city: How a lack of vultures threatens Mumbai's 'Towers of Silence'".The Guardian.26 January 2015.Retrieved23 August2023.
External links
edit
