Japanese pronouns

Japanesepronouns(Đại danh từ,daimeishi)are words in theJapanese languageused to address or refer to present people or things, where present means people or things that can be pointed at. The position of things (far away, nearby) and their role in the current interaction (goods, addresser,addressee,bystander) are features of the meaning of those words. The use ofpronouns,especially when referring to oneself and speaking in the first person, vary betweengender,formality,dialect and region where Japanese is spoken.

According to some Western grammarians, pronouns are not a distinctpart of speechin Japanese, but a subclass ofnouns,since they behave grammatically just like nouns.Among Japanese grammarians, whether pronouns should be considered a distinct part of speech(Phẩm từ,hinshi)has varied.Some considered them distinct,while others thought they were only nouns.Thegakkō bunpō(Học giáo văn pháp,lit. 'school grammar')of today has followedIwabuchi Etsutarō's model,which does not recognize pronouns as a distinct part of speech, but merely a subclass of nouns (seeJapanese grammar § Different classifications).

Use and etymology

In contrast to present people and things, absent people and things can be referred to by naming; for example, by instantiating a class, "the house" (in a context where there is only one house) and presenting things in relation to the present, named and sui generis people or things can be "I'm going home", "I'm going to Hayao's place", "I'm going to the mayor's place", "I'm going to my mother's place" or "I'm going to my mother's friend's place". Functionally, deictic classifiers not only indicate that the referenced person or thing has a spatial position or an interactional role but also classify it to some extent. In addition, Japanese pronouns are restricted by a situation type (register): who is talking to whom about what and through which medium (spoken or written, staged or in private). In that sense, when a male is talking to his male friends, the pronoun set that is available to him is different from those available when a man of the same age talks to his wife and, vice versa, when a woman talks to her husband. These variations in pronoun availability are determined by the register.

In linguistics,generativistsand otherstructuralistssuggest that the Japanese language does not havepronounsas such, since, unlike pronouns in most other languages that have them, these words aresyntacticallyandmorphologicallyidentical tonouns.Asfunctionalistspoint out, however, these words function aspersonal references,demonstratives,andreflexives,just as pronouns do in other languages.

Japanese has a large number of pronouns, differing in use by formality, gender, age, and relative social status of speaker and audience. Further, pronouns are anopen class,with existing nouns being used as new pronouns with some frequency. This is ongoing; a recent example isjibun(Tự phân,self),which is now used by some young men as a casual first-person pronoun.

Pronouns are used less frequentlyin the Japanese language than in many other languages,mainly because there isno grammatical requirementto include the subject in a sentence. That means that pronouns can seldom be translated from English to Japanese on a one-to-one basis.

The common English personal pronouns, such as "I", "you", and "they", have no other meanings or connotations. However, most Japanese personal pronouns do. Consider for example two words corresponding to the English pronoun "I": Tư (watashi) also means "private" or "personal". Phó (boku) carries a masculine impression; it is typically used by males, especially those in theiryouth.

Japanese words that refer to other people are part of the encompassing system ofhonorific speechand should be understood within that context. Pronoun choice depends on the speaker's social status (as compared to the listener's) as well as the sentence's subjects and objects.

The first-person pronouns (e.g.,watashi,Tư ) and second-person pronouns (e.g.,anata,Quý phương ) are used in formal contexts (however the latter can be considered rude). In many sentences, pronouns that mean "I" and "you" are omitted in Japanese when the meaning is still clear.

When it is required to state thetopicof the sentence for clarity, the particlewa(は) is used, but it is not required when the topic can be inferred from context. Also, there are frequently used verbs that imply the subject and/or indirect object of the sentence in certain contexts:kureru(くれる) means "give" in the sense that "somebody other than me gives something to me or to somebody very close to me."Ageru(あげる) also means "give", but in the sense that "someone gives something to someone other than me." This often makes pronouns unnecessary, as they can be inferred from context.

In Japanese, a speaker may only directly express their own emotions, as they cannot know the true mental state of anyone else.Thus, in sentences comprising a single adjective (often those ending in-shii), it is often assumed that the speaker is the subject. For example, the adjectivesabishii( tịch しい) can represent a complete sentence that means "I am lonely." When speaking of another person's feelings or emotions,sabishisō( tịch しそう) "seems lonely" would be used instead. Similarly,neko ga hoshii( miêu が dục しい) "I want a cat," as opposed toneko wo hoshigatte iru( miêu を dục しがっている) "seems to want a cat," when referring to others.Thus, the first-person pronoun is usually not used unless the speaker wants to put a special stress on the fact that they are referring to themselves or if it is necessary to make it clear.

In some contexts, it may be considered uncouth to refer to the listener (second person) by a pronoun. If it is required to state the second person, the listener's surname, suffixed with-sanor some other title (like "customer", "teacher", or "boss" ), is generally used.

Gender differences in spoken Japanesealso create another challenge, as men and women refer to themselves with different pronouns. Social standing also determines how people refer to themselves, as well as how they refer to other people.

Most common Japanese first-person pronouns by speakers and situations according to Yuko Saegusa,Concerning the First Personal Pronoun of Native Japanese Speakers(2009)

First-person pronouns by elementary school pupils (2008)

Speaker	Situation	First	Second	Third
Female	To friends	uchi49%	First name 26%	atashi15%
	In the family	First name 33%	atashi29%	uchi23%
	In a class	watashi86%	atashi7%	uchi6%
	To an unknown visitor	watashi75%	atashi,first name,uchi8% each
	To the class teacher	watashi66%	First name 13%	atashi9%
Male	To friends	ore72%	boku19%	First name 4%
	In the family	ore62%	boku23%	Others (not includinguchi) 9%
	In a class	boku85%	ore13%	First name, nickname 1% each
	To an unknown visitor	boku64%	ore26%	First name 4%
	To the class teacher	boku67%	ore27%	First name 3%

First-person pronouns by university students (2009)

Speaker	Situation	First	Second	Third
Female	To friends	uchi39%	atashi30%	watashi22%
	In the family	atashi28%	First name 27%	uchi18%
	In a class	watashi89%	atashi7%	jibun3%
	To an unknown visitor	watashi81%	atashi10%	jibun6%
	To the class teacher	watashi77%	atashi17%	jibun7%
Male	To friends	ore87%	uchi4%	watashi,jibun2% each
	In the family	ore88%	boku,jibun5% each
	In a class	watashi48%	jibun28%	boku22%
	To an unknown visitor	boku36%	jibun29%	watashi22%
	To the class teacher	jibun38%	boku29%	watashi22%

List of Japanese personal pronouns

The list is incomplete, as there are numerous Japanese pronoun forms, which vary by region and dialect. This is a list of the most commonly used forms. "It" has no direct equivalent in Japanese(though in some contexts the demonstrative pronoun それ (sore) is translatable as "it" ). Also, Japanese does not generallyinflectby case, so,Iis equivalent tome.

Romaji	Hiragana	Kanji	Level of speech	Gender	Notes
– I/me –
watashi	わたし	Tư	formal/informal	both	In formal or polite contexts, this is gender neutral; in casual speech, it is typically only used by women. Use by men in casual contexts may be perceived as stiff.
watakushi	わたくし	Tư	very formal	both	The most formal personal pronoun. Outdated curriculums did not provide for any other kind of pronoun in everyday speech for foreigners, except for watakushi.However, in modern student books, such a pronoun has been withdrawn from use.
ware	われ	Ngã, ngô	very formal	both	Used in literary style writing. Also used as rude second person in western dialects.
waga	わが	Ngã が	very formal	both	Means "my" or "our". Used in speeches and formalities; ngã が xãwaga-sha(our company) or ngã が quốcwaga-kuni(our country).
ore	おれ	Yêm	informal	males	Frequently used by men.Establishes a sense of "masculinity". Can be seen as rude depending on the context. Emphasises one's own status when used with peers and with those who are younger or of lesser status. Among close friends or family, its use conveys familiarity rather than "masculinity" or superiority. It was used also by women until the late Edo period and still is in some dialects. AlsooiinKyushu dialect.
boku	ぼく	Phó	formal/informal	males	Used by males of all ages; very often used by boys; can be used by females but then carries tomboyish or feminist connotations. Perceived as humble, but can also carry an undertone of "feeling young" when used by males of older age. Also used when casually giving deference; "servant" uses the same kanji (Phóshimobe). Can also be used as a second-person pronoun toward male children (English equivalent – "kid" or "squirt" ).
washi	わし	Nông	formal/informal	mainly males	Often used in western dialects and fictional settings to stereotypically represent characters of old age. Alsowai,a slang version ofwashiin theKansai dialect.
jibun	じぶん	Tự phân	neutral	mainly males	Literally "oneself"; used as either reflexive or personal pronoun. Can convey a sense of distance when used in the latter way. Also used as casual second person pronoun in the Kansai dialect.
ore-sama	おれさま	Yêm dạng	informal	mainly (fictional) males	"My esteemed self", "Mr. I". Used in fiction by very self-important or arrogant characters,or humorously.
atai	あたい	Tư	very informal	females	Slang version of あたしatashi.
atashi	あたし	Tư	informal	females (but see notes)	A feminine pronoun that strains from わたし ( "watashi" ). Rarely used in written language, but common in conversation, especially among younger women. It was formerly used by male members of themerchant and artisan classesin theEdo areaand continues to be used by malerakugoperformers.
atakushi	あたくし	Tư	informal	females	A feminine pronoun that strains from わたくし ( "watakushi" ).
uchi	うち	Gia, nội	informal	mostly females	Means "one's own". Often used in western dialects especially the Kansai dialect. Generally written in kana. Plural formuchi-rais used by both genders. Singular form is also used by both sexes when talking about the household, e.g., "uchi no neko"(" my/our cat "),"uchi no chichi-oya"(" my father "); also used in less formal business speech to mean" our company ", e.g.,"uchi wa sandai no rekkāsha ga aru"(" we (our company) have three tow-trucks ").
(own name)			informal	both	Used by small children and young women; considered cute and childish.
oira	おいら	Yêm đẳng, kỷ đẳng	informal	males	Similar to yêmore,but more casual. Evokes a person with a rural background, a "country bumpkin".
ora	おら	Yêm đẳng	informal	both	Dialect in Kanto and further north. Similar to おいらoira,but more rural. Alsourain some dialects.
wate	わて		informal	both	Dated Kansai dialect. Alsoate(somewhat feminine).
shōsei	しょうせい	Tiểu sinh	formal, written	males	Used among academic colleagues. Lit. "your pupil".
– you (singular) –
(name andhonorific)			formality depends on the honorific used	both
anata	あなた	Quý phương, quý nam, quý nữ	formal/informal	both	The kanji are very rarely used. The only second person pronoun comparable to English "you", yet still not used as often in this universal way by native speakers, as it can be considered having a condescending undertone, especially towards superiors.For expressing "you" in formal contexts, using the person's name with an honorific is more typical. More commonly,anatamay be used when having no information about the addressed person; also often used as "you" in commercials, when not referring to a particular person. Furthermore, commonly used by women to address their husband or lover, in a way roughly equivalent to the English "dear".
anta	あんた	Quý phương	informal	both	Contraction of あなたanata.Can express contempt, anger or familiarity towards a person. Generally seen as rude or uneducated when used in formal contexts.
otaku	おたく	お trạch, ngự trạch	formal, polite	both	A polite way of saying "your house", also used as a pronoun to address a person with slight sense of distance.Otaku/otakki/otaturned into a slang term referring to a type ofgeek/obsessive hobbyist,as they often addressed each other asotaku.
omae	おまえ	お tiền	very informal	both	Similar toanta,but used by men with more frequency.Expresses the speaker's higher status or age, or a very casual relationship among peers. Often used with おれore.Very rude if said to elders. Commonly used by men to address their wife or lover, paralleling the female use of "anata".
temē,temae	てめえ, てまえ	Thủ tiền	rude and confrontational	mainly males	Literal meaning "the one in front of my hand".Temē,a reduction oftemae,is more rude. Used when the speaker is very angry. Originally used for a humble first person. The Kanji are seldom used with this meaning, as unrelated to its use as a pronoun, thủ tiền can also mean "before", "this side", "one's standpoint" or "one's appearance".
kisama	きさま	Quý dạng	extremely hostile and rude	mainly males	Historically very formal, but has developed in an ironic sense to show the speaker's extreme hostility / outrage towards the addressee.
kimi	きみ	Quân	informal	both	The kanji means "lord" (archaic) and is also used to write-kun.Informal to subordinates; can also be affectionate; formerly very polite. Among peers typically used with phóboku.Often seen as rude or assuming when used with superiors, elders or strangers.
kika	きか	Quý hạ	informal, to a younger person	both
kikan	きかん	Quý quan	very formal, used to address government officials, military personnel, etc.	both
on-sha	おんしゃ	Ngự xã	formal, used to the listener representing your company	both	Only used in spoken language.
ki-sha	きしゃ	Quý xã	formal, similar toonsha	both	Only used in written language as opposed toonsha.
– he / she –
ano kata	あのかた	あの phương	very formal	both	Sometimes pronouncedano hou,but with the same kanji. Phương means "direction," and is more formal by avoiding referring to the actual person in question.
ano hito	あのひと	あの nhân	neutral	both	Literally "that person".
yatsu	やつ	Nô	informal	both	A thing (very informal), dude, guy.
koitsu,koyatsu	こいつ, こやつ	Thử nô	very informal, implies contempt	both	Denotes a person or material nearby the speaker. Analogous to "he/she" or "this one".
soitsu,soyatsu	そいつ, そやつ	Kỳ nô	very informal, implies contempt	both	Denotes a person or material nearby the listener. Analogous to "he/she" or "that one".
aitsu,ayatsu	あいつ, あやつ	Bỉ nô	very informal, implies contempt	both	Denotes a person or (less frequently) material far from both the speaker and the listener. Analogous to "he/she" or "that one".
– he –
kare	かれ	Bỉ	formal (neutral) and informal (boyfriend)	both	Can also mean "boyfriend". Formerly bỉ thịkareshiwas its equivalent, but this now always means "boyfriend".Literally meaning "that one", inclassical Japaneseit could mean "he", "she", or "it".
– she –
kanojo	かのじょ	Bỉ nữ	formal (neutral) and informal (girlfriend)	both	Originally created in the 19th century as an equivalent to female pronouns in European languages. Initially pronouncedkano onna,it literally means "that female".Can also mean "girlfriend".
– we(see also list of pluralising suffixes, below) –
ware-ware	われわれ	Ngã 々	formal	both	Mostly used when speaking on behalf of a company or group.
ware-ra	われら	Ngã đẳng	informal	both	Used in literary style.wareis never used with-tachi.
hei-sha	へいしゃ	Tệ xã	formal and humble	both	Used when representing one's own company. From aSino-Japanese wordmeaning "low company" or "humble company".
waga-sha	わがしゃ	Ngã が xã	formal	both	Used when representing one's own company.
– they(see also list of pluralising suffixes, below)–
kare-ra	かれら	Bỉ đẳng	common in spoken Japanese and writing	both

Archaic personal pronouns

Romaji	Hiragana	Kanji	Meaning	Level of speech	Gender	Notes
asshi	あっし	Tư	I		males	Slang version ofwatashi.From theEdo period.
sessha	せっしゃ	Chuyết giả	I		males	Used by samurai during the feudal ages (and often also by ninja in fictionalised portrayals). From a Sino-Japanese word meaning "one who is clumsy".
wagahai	わがはい	Ngã が bối, ngô bối	I		males	Literally "my fellows; my class; my cohort", but used in a somewhat pompous manner as a first-person singular pronoun.
soregashi	それがし	Mỗ	I		males	Literally "So-and-so", a nameless expression. Similar tosessha.
warawa	わらわ	Thiếp	I		females	Literally "child". Mainly used by women in samurai families. Today, it is used in fictional settings to represent archaic noble female characters.
wachiki	わちき		I		females	Used bygeishaandoiraninEdo period.Also あちきachikiand わっちwacchi.
yo	よ	Dư, dư	I		males	Archaic first-person singular pronoun.
chin	ちん	Trẫm	We		both	Used only by theEmperor,mostly beforeWorld War II.
maro	まろ	Ma lữ, mi	I		males	Used as a universal first-person pronoun in ancient times. Today, it is used in fictional settings to represent Court noble male characters.
onore	おのれ	Kỷ	I or you		males	The wordonore,as well as the kanji used to transcribe it, literally means "oneself". It is humble when used as a first person pronoun and hostile (on the level of てめえtemeeor てまえtemae) when used as a second person pronoun.
kei	けい	Khanh	you		males	Second person pronoun, used mostly by males. Used among peers to denote light respect, and by a superior addressing his subjects and retainers in a familiar manner. Like quânkimi,this can also be used as an honorific (pronounced as きょうkyou), in which case it's equivalent to "lord/lady" or "sir/dame".
nanji	なんじ	Nhữ, less commonly also nhĩ	you, often translated as "thou"		both	Spelled as なむちnamuchiin the most ancient texts and later as なんちnanchior なんぢnanji.
onushi	おぬし	Ngự chủ, お chủ	you		both	Used by elders and samurai to talk to people of equal or lower rank. Literally means "master".
sonata	そなた	Kỳ phương (rarely used)	you		both	Originally a mesial deictic pronoun meaning "that side; that way; that direction"; used as a lightly respectful second person pronoun in previous eras, but now used when speaking to an inferior in a pompous and old-fashioned tone.
sochi	そち	Kỳ phương (rarely used)	you		both	Similar to そなたsonata.Literally means "that way". (Sochiraandkochira,sometimes shortened tosotchiandkotchi,are still sometimes used to mean roughly "you" and "I, we", e.g.kochira kosoin response to thanks or an apology means literally "this side is the one" but idiomatically "no, I (or we) thank/apologise to you"; especially common on the telephone, analogous to phrases like "on this end" and "on your end" in English.Kochira kosois often translated as "me/us, too" or "likewise" – it is certainly a reciprocation gesture, but sometimes a little more.)

Suffixes

Suffixes are added to pronouns to make them plural.

Romaji	Hiragana	Kanji	Level of speech	Notes
tachi	たち	Đạt	informal; examples: Phó đạt,boku-tachi Tư đạt,watashi-tachi あなた đạt,anata-tachi Quân đạt,kimi-tachi	Also can be attached to names to indicate that person and the group they are with (Ryuichi-tachi= "Ryuichi and friends" ).
kata, gata	かた, がた	Phương	formal (ex. あなた phương,anata-gata)	More polite than đạttachi.gatais therendakuform.
domo	ども	Cộng	humble (ex. Tư ども,watakushi-domo)	Casts some aspersion on the mentioned group, so it can be rude.domois therendakuform.
ra	ら	Đẳng	informal (ex. Bỉ ら,karera.Yêm ら,ore-ra.Nô ら,yatsu-ra.あいつら,aitsu-ra)	Used with informal pronouns. Frequently used with hostile words. Sometimes used for light humble asdomo(ex. Tư ら,watashi-ra).

Demonstrative and interrogative pronouns

Demonstrativewords, whether functioning as pronouns,adjectivesoradverbs,fall into four groups. Words beginning withko-indicate something close to the speaker (so-calledproximaldemonstratives). Those beginning withso-indicate separation from the speaker or closeness to the listener (medial), while those beginning witha-indicate greater distance (distal).Interrogative words,used in questions, begin withdo-.

Demonstratives are normally written in hiragana.

Romaji	Hiragana	Kanji	Meaning
kore	これ	Thử れ	this thing / these things (close to the 1st person)
sore	それ	Kỳ れ	that thing / those things (close to the 2nd person)
are	あれ	Bỉ れ	that thing / those things (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)
dore	どれ	Hà れ	which thing(s)?
kochiraorkotchi	こちら / こっち	Thử phương	this / here (close to the 1st person)
sochiraorsotchi	そちら / そっち	Kỳ phương	that / there (close to the 2nd person)
achiraoratchi	あちら / あっち	Bỉ phương	that / there (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)
dochiraordotchi	どちら / どっち	Hà phương	what / where

When a Japanese speaker usesko-,so-anda-forms, they are not necessarily considering spatial distance, but also psychological, temporal and topical distance.

For more forms, seeJapanese demonstratives on Wiktionary.

Other interrogative pronouns include hà なにnani"what?" and thùy だれdare"who(m)?".

Reflexive

Japanese has only one word corresponding toreflexive pronounssuch asmyself,yourself,orthemselvesin English. The word tự phân(jibun)means "one's self" and may be used for some animals, including humans. It is not used forcold-blooded animalsorinanimate objects.

Old Japanese pronouns

EachOld Japanesepronoun has a "long" form that ends in-re,and a "short" form without-re.When combining with agenitiveparticle,the short forms of personal pronouns, as well asanimatenouns, notably combined only withga,while demonstratives (ko,so,(k)a) and inanimate nouns combined withno,only withgain limited circumstances; in contrast, modern Japanese pronouns (many of which were originally nouns) and nouns only combine withno.The short forms are used withgaand in compounds, while the long forms are used independently.

Old Japanese personal pronouns

Person	Long form	Short form	Genitive form
1st	(w)are "I/me"	(w)a	(w)a-ga "my/mine"
2nd	nare "thou/thee"	na	na-ga "thy/thine"
3rd		si	si-ga "his/her(s)"
	tare "who(m)"	ta	ta-ga "whose"

Of these,tareevolved into moderndare,whose genitive form is simplydare-no.Ta-gais sometimes used for literary effect, for example in the Japanese title ofFor Whom the Bell Tolls(Thùy がために chung は minh る,Ta-gaTame-ni Kane-wa Naru).Wareis often used in fiction, andwa-gain fixed expressions, such as ngã が quốc ( "my/our country" ).

Genitive forms, when combining with a noun that began in a vowel, may fuse with it. For example,wa-ga"my" +imo"sister" →wa-gimo"my sister";wa-ga+ipe₁"house" →wa-gipe₁"my house" (wa-giein modern Japanese).

Old Japanese demonstratives

Type	Long form	Short form	Genitive form
Proximal (close to the 1st person)	kore	ko	ko-no
Mesial (close to the 2nd person)	sore	so	so-no
Distal (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)	kare	ka	ka-no

These demonstratives largely survived intact into modern Japanese.Karecame to be used as a gender-neutral third-person personal pronoun, and eventually used to translate masculine third-person pronouns specifically in European languages ( "he/him" ), whileka-nowas used to createkanojoand to translate feminine pronouns ( "she/her" ).

The modern pronounskanojoandkareshi

The third-person feminine pronoun,kanojo(Bỉ(かの)Nữ(じょ)),had not existed until sometime around theend of the Tokugawa shogunateand the beginning of theMeiji era.Prior to this, the distal demonstrative pronounkare, are(Bỉ,lit. 'that'(locationally, someone or something far from both the 1st and 2nd persons))was used as a gender-neutral personal pronoun.

Bỉ nữ started out as a mere shortened spelling of the phraseka-no wonna(かのをんな),which could be spelt in full asBỉ(か)のNữ(をんな),literally simply means "that female person," and is composed of the genitive form ofkare,ka-no,and the nounwonna(nowonna). Although not being a pronoun in alexicographicsense, this phrase can be used pronominally like modern expressions such asa-no hito(あの nhân,lit. 'that person')ora-no mono(あの giả,lit. 'that individual')for the singular "they/them,"a-no otoko(あの nam,lit. 'that male person')for "he/him," and of course,a-no onna(あの nữ,lit. 'that female person')for "she/her." The pronunciation of this phrase was consistently listed aska-no wonna(カノヲンナ)across various pronunciation dictionaries for elementary students during the Meiji era.The earliest exception was the 1876 dictionaryKaisei Syougaku Tokuhon Zibiki(Cải chính tiểu học độc bổn tự dẫn)by điền trung 𦤺 tri, which listedKA-NO ZYO Mukau-ni wiru musume(Bỉ(カノ)Nữ(ジヨ)ムカウニヰルムスメ,lit. 'THAT FEMALE-PERSON: The girl who is way over there').It has been suggested that the editor may have simply usedka-no zyo(nowkanojo) for novelty back whenjo(Nữ)was still commonly used as afree noun.This unique pronunciation was listed in a few later dictionaries.The same aforementioned dictionaries and more also listedka-no wotoko(Bỉ(カノ)Nam(ヲトコ),lit. 'that male person'),ka-no mono(Bỉ(カノ)Giả(モノ),lit. 'that individual')andka-no hito(Bỉ(カノ)Nhân(ヒト),lit. 'that person').

The phraseka-no wonna(and its alternativeka-no zyo) rose to prominence due to Meiji writers' need to translate third-person feminine pronouns in European languages,such assheandherin English orelleandellesin French, which they eventually incorporated into their own writings. An 1871 French-Japanese dictionary translatedelleaska-no wonna-ha. ka-no wonna-ni. tuma(Bỉ nữ ハ. Bỉ nữ ニ. Phu,lit. 'that-GENfemale-person-TOP;that-GENfemale-person-DAT;spouse'),andellesaskare-ra(Bỉ đẳng,lit. 'those');an 1885 English-Japanese dictionary translatedheraska-no wonna. ka-no wonna-ni. ka-no wonna-wo(Bỉ(カ)ノNữ(ヲンナ).Bỉ ノ nữ ニ. Bỉ ノ nữ ヲ,lit. 'that-GENfemale-person; that-GENfemale-person-DAT;that-GENfemale-person-ACC'),herselfaska-no wonna zisin-ni(Bỉ nữ tự thân(カノヲンナジシン)ニ,lit. 'that-GENfemale-person self-INS'),andsheaska-no wonna. mesu(Bỉ nữ. Thư(カノヲンナメス),lit. 'that-GENfemale-person; female').In contrast, masculine pronouns such ashe/him/his,il/ils,etc. were translated withkare(Bỉ)andkare-ra(Bỉ đẳng).

Kanojo,as alexicalizedpronoun, was first attested in literature in its writtenfurigana-glossed form askanozyo(Bỉ(かの)Nữ(じよ))in the 1885 novelTousei Syosei Katagi(Đương thế thư sinh khí chất)byTsubouchi Shōyō.Meanwhile,Sudō Nansui (Mitsuaki)usedsī(Bỉ nữ(シー),lit. 'she')andka-no wonna(Bỉ(かの)Nữ(をんな))in his 1887 novelThe Ladies of New Style(Tân trang chi giai nhân,Sinsou no Kazin);andFutabatei Shimeiusedare(Bỉ nữ(あれ),lit. 'that')in his novelUkigumopublished in the same year.As a phrase,ka-no wonna/ka-no zyoreferred to female non-relatives, but as a pronoun,kanojocame to be used for female family members in literature,for example byNatsume Sōsekiin his 1912 novelTo the Spring Equinox and Beyond(Bỉ ngạn quá hất,Higan Sugi-made),where a character refers to his mother askanodyo(Bỉ(かの)Nữ(ぢよ));the regular phraseka-no wonna(Bỉ(かの)Nữ(をんな))still occurs in reference to a different woman.At this point, the phraseka-no wonnaand the pronounkanojo/kanodyocoexisted with different usages even in the same work.Kanojoeventually acquired its status as a lexicalized noun meaning "girlfriend" during the lateTaishō era.

The third-person masculine pronounkareshi(Bỉ thị)was coined during the earlyShōwa eraas an alternative to the once-gender-neutralkare(Bỉ)and as the opposite to the femininekanojo(Bỉ nữ).Its first written attestation as a pronoun is attributed toTokugawa Musei's 1929 essay collectionMandanshū(Mạn đàm tập);as a noun meaning "boyfriend," toNagai Kafū's 1934 novelHikage-no Hana(ひかげの hoa).Morphologically,kareshi(Bỉ thị)is composed of the aforementioned demonstrative-turned-personal pronounkare(Bỉ)and-shi(Thị),the latter of which is anhonorific suffixto names,mostly male names,and can be translated as "Mr."Kareshiwas often used in atongue-in-cheekway;compare the masculine and self-aggrandizingore-sama(Yêm dạng),which also consists of a pronoun (ore(Yêm,"I/me" )) and anhonorific suffix(-sama(Dạng)).

See also

• Gender differences in spoken Japanese
• Japanese honorifics

External links

• Japan Reference: Personal pronouns in Japanese
• sci.lang.japan FAQ: Japanese pronouns