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Java

This article is about the Indonesian island. For the programming language, seeJava (programming language).For other uses, seeJava (disambiguation).

Java[a]is one of theGreater Sunda IslandsinIndonesia.It is bordered by theIndian Oceanto the south and theJava Seato the north. With a population of 156.4 million people, Java is the world'smost populous island,home to approximately 56% of theIndonesian population.[2]Indonesia's capital city,Jakarta,is on Java's northwestern coast.

Java
Native name:
Jawa(Indonesian)
Topography of Java
Geography
LocationSoutheast Asia
Coordinates7°29′30″S110°00′16″E/ 7.49167°S 110.00444°E/-7.49167; 110.00444
ArchipelagoIndonesian Archipelago
Greater Sunda Islands
Area132,011.65 km2(50,969.98 sq mi)
Area rank13th
Highest elevation3,678 m (12067 ft)
Highest pointSemeru
Administration
ProvincesBanten,
Special Region of Jakarta,
West Java,
Central Java,
Special Region of Yogyakarta,
East Java
Largest settlementJakarta(pop. 11,350,328)
Demographics
Population156,391,145 (mid 2023)
Pop. density1,219/km2(3157/sq mi)
Ethnic groupsJavanese(inc.Tenggerese,Osing,Banyumasan),
Sundanese(inc.Baduy,Bantenese,Cirebonese),
Madurese(inc.Bawean,Pendalungan),
Betawi,
Malaysetc.
Additional information
Time zone
This article contains letters from theJavanese script.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Javanese characters.
You may needrendering supportto display theSundanese scriptin this article correctly.

Many of the best known events in Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonialDutch East Indies.Java was also the center of theIndonesian struggle for independenceduring the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Four of Indonesia's eightUNESCOworld heritage sites are located in Java:Ujung Kulon National Park,Borobudur Temple,Prambanan Temple,andSangiran Early Man Site.

Java was formed by volcanic eruptions due to geologicsubductionof theAustralian Plateunder theSunda Plate.It is the13th largest islandin the world and thefifth largestinIndonesiaby landmass, at about 132,011.65 square kilometres (50,969.98 sq mi) (includingMadura's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi)). A chain of volcanic mountains is the east–west spine of the island.

Four main languages are spoken on the island:Javanese,Sundanese,Madurese,andBetawi.JavaneseandSundaneseare the most spoken.[3]The ethnic groups native to the island are theJavanesein the central and eastern parts andSundanesein the western parts. TheMaduresein theEastern salient of Javaare migrants fromMadura Island,while theBetawiin the capital city of Jakarta are hybrids from variousethnic groups in Indonesia.Most residents are bilingual, speakingIndonesian(the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java areMuslim,Java's population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.[4]

Java is divided into four administrative provinces:Banten,West Java,Central Java,andEast Java,and two special regions,JakartaandYogyakarta.

Etymology

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See also:Zabag kingdomandAl-Wakwak

The origins of the name "Java" are not clear. The island could possibly have been named after thejáwa-wutplant, which was said to be common in the island during the time, and that prior to Indianization the island had different names.[5]There are other possible sources: the wordjaúand its variations mean "beyond" or "distant".[6]And, inSanskrityavameans barley, a plant for which the island was famous.[6]"Yavadvipa" is mentioned inIndia's earliest epic, theRamayana.Sugriva,the chief ofRama's army, dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the island of Java, in search ofSita.[7]It was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island). Java is mentioned in the ancientTamiltextManimekalaibyChithalai Chathanarwhich states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.[8][9][10]Another source states that the word "Java" is derived from aProto-Austronesianroot word, meaning "home".[11]The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned inPtolemy'sGeographiacomposed around 150 CE in theRoman Empire.Iabadiuis said to mean "barley island", to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicates Java[12]and seems to be derived from the Sanskrit name Java-dvipa (Yavadvipa).

The annual news of Songshu and Liangshu (5th century CE) referred to Java as đồ bà (She-póorShe-bó), He-ling (640–818), then called it She-po again until theYuan dynasty(1271–1368), where they began mentioning trảo oa (Zhao-WaorChao-Wa).[13]According toMa Huan's book (theYingya Shenlan), the Chinese called Java Chao-Wa, and the island was called She-po in the past.[14]Sulaiman al-Tajir al-Sirafi mentioned two notable islands which separatedArabiaandChina:One is the 800farsakhlong Al-Rami, which is identified as Sumatra, and the other isZabaj(Arabic: الزابج,Indonesian:Sabak), 400 farsakh in length, identified as Java.[15]: 30–31 WhenJohn of Marignollireturned from China toAvignon,he stayed at theKingdom of Sabafor a few months, which he said had many elephants and was led by aqueen;Saba may be his interpretation of She-bó.[16]: xii, 192–194 Afanasij Nikitin,a merchant fromTver(in Russia), traveled to India in 1466 and described the land of java, which he called шабайте (shabait/šabajte).[17][18]

Geography

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See also:Volcanoes of Java
Mount BromoinEast Java

Java lies betweenSumatrato the west andBalito the east.Borneolies to the north, andChristmas Islandis to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by theJava Seato the north, theSunda Straitto the west, theIndian Oceanto the south andBali Strait[19]andMadura Straitin the east.[20]

Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin; it contains 38 mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes. There are 112 volcanoes in all, 35 of it are active. The highest volcano in Java is MountSemeru,3,676 metres (12,060 ft). The most active volcano in Java and also in Indonesia isMount Merapi,2,930 metres (9,610 ft).[21]In total, Java has more than 150 mountains.[22]

Java's mountains and highlands split the interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable forwet-ricecultivation; the rice lands of Java are among the richest in the world.[23]Java was the first place whereIndonesian coffeewas grown, starting in 1699. Today,coffea arabicais grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations.[24]

Parahyanganhighland nearBuitenzorg,c.1865–1872

The area of Java is about 132,011.65 square kilometres (50,969.98 sq mi) (including Madura's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi) and minor offshore islands).[23]It is about 1,000 km (620 mi) long and up to 210 km (130 mi) wide. The island's longestriveris the 600 km longSolo River.[25]The river rises from its source in central Java at theLawuvolcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the Java Sea near the city ofSurabaya.Other major rivers areBrantas,Citarum,CimanukandSerayu.[citation needed]

The average temperature ranges from 22 °C (72 °F) to 29 °C (84 °F); average humidity is 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter, averaging 34 °C (93 °F) during the day in thedry season.The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are even cooler.[26]Thewet seasonbegins in November and ends in April. During that rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February.[27]

West Java is wetter thanEast Java,and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. TheParahyanganhighlands of West Java receive over 4,000 millimetres (160 in) annually, while the north coast of East Java receives 900 millimetres (35 in) annually.[citation needed]

Natural environment

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Cymbidium dayanum- typical orchid in Java.

Java is an island with a large amount of biodiversity. Thenatural environmentof Java istropical rainforest,with ecosystems ranging from coastalmangroveforest on the north coast, rocky coastal cliffs on the southern coast, and low-lyingtropical forestto high altitude rainforest on the slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The Javan environment and climate gradually alters from west to east; from wet and humid dense rainforest in western parts, to a drysavannaenvironment in the east, corresponding to the climate and rainfall in these regions.[citation needed]

MaleJavan rhinoshot in 1934 in West Java. Today only small numbers of Javan rhino survive inUjung Kulon;it is the world's rarest rhino.

Javan wildlife originally supported a rich biodiversity, where numbers ofendemicspecies of flora and fauna flourished; such as theJavan rhinoceros,[28]Javan banteng,Javan warty pig,Javan hawk-eagle,Javan peafowl,Javan silvery gibbon,Javan lutung,Java mouse-deer,Javan rusa,andJavan leopard.With over 450 bird species and 37 endemic species, Java is a birdwatcher's paradise.[29]There are about 130 freshwater fish species in Java.[30]There are also several endemicamphibian species in Java,including 5 species oftree frogs.[citation needed]

Since ancient times, people have opened the rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and createdrice paddyand terraces to support the growing population. Javan rice terraces have existed for more than a millennium and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population has put severe pressure on Java's wildlife, as rainforests were diminished and confined to highland slopes or isolated peninsulas. Some of Java's endemic species are now critically endangered, with some already extinct; Java used to haveJavan tigersandJavan elephants,but both have been rendered extinct. Today, several national parks exist in Java that protect the remnants of its fragile wildlife, such asUjung Kulon,Mount Halimun-Salak,Gede Pangrango,Baluran,Meru Betiri,Bromo Tengger SemeruandAlas Purwo.

History

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Homo erectuspresence

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Thesyntypefossils of Java Man (H. e. erectus), atNaturalis,Leiden
Cast of Skull XI at theHall of Human Origins,Washington, D.C.

Fossilised remains ofHomo erectus,popularly known as the "Java Man",dating back 1.3 million[31]years were found along the banks of theBengawan Solo River.[32]

H. erectusarrived in Eurasia approximately 1.8 million years ago, in an event considered to be the first African exodus.[33]There is evidence that the Java population ofH. erectuslived in an ever-wet forest habitat. More specifically the environment resembled asavannah,but was likely regularly inundated ( "hydromorphic savanna" ). The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass (Poaceae),ferns,Ficus,andIndigofera,which are typical of lowland rainforest.[34]

H. e. soloensiswas the last population of a long occupation history of the island of Java byH. erectus,beginning 1.51 to 0.93 million years ago at the Sangiran site, continuing 540 to 430 thousand years ago at the Trinil site, and finally 117 to 108 thousand years ago at Ngandong. If the date is correct for Solo Man, then they would represent a terminal population ofH. erectuswhich sheltered in the last open-habitat refuges of East Asia before the rainforest takeover. Before the immigration of modern humans, Late Pleistocene Southeast Asia was also home toH. floresiensisendemic to the island ofFlores,Indonesia, andH. luzonensisendemic to the island ofLuzon,the Philippines. Genetic analysis of present-day Southeast Asian populations indicates the widespread dispersal of theDenisovans(a species currently recognisable only by their genetic signature) across Southeast Asia, whereupon they interbred with immigrating modern humans 45.7 and 29.8 thousand years ago.[citation needed]A 2021 genomic study indicates that, aside from the Denisovans, modern humans never interbred with any of these endemic human species, unless the offspring wereunviableor the hybrid lineages have since died out.[citation needed]

Judging by the sheer number of specimens deposited at Ngandong at the same time, there may have been a sizeable population ofH. e soloensisbefore the volcanic eruption which resulted in their interment, but population is difficult to approximate with certainty. The Ngandong site was some distance away from the northern coast of the island, but it is unclear where the southern shoreline and the mouth of the Solo River would have been.[citation needed]

After the arrival of modern humans

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Mount Sumbingsurrounded by rice fields. Java's volcanic topography and rich agricultural lands are the fundamental factors in its history.

The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed the development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of Java kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated.[35]Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided the main means of communication, although Java's many rivers are mostly short. Only theBrantas riverand Solo river could provide long-distance communication and this way their valleys supported the centers of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges, and toll gates is thought to have been established in Java by at least the mid-17th century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could the wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Consequently, communication between Java's population was difficult.[23]

Standing warrior bronze figures, Java,c.500 BC – 300 AD

The emergence of civilization on the island of Java is often associated with the arrival ofAji Sakain 78 AD. Although Aji Saka is said to be the bearer of civilization on Java, the story received several objections and rebuttals from other historical sources. Valmiki'sRamayana,made around 500 BC, records that Java already had a governmental organization long before the story:

"Yawadwipa is decorated with seven kingdoms, gold and silver islands, rich in gold mines, and there is Cicira (cold) Mountain that touches the sky with its peak."[36]: 6 

The Greek geographerPtolemycalled the island Yabadiou or Sabadiou (Ancient Greek:Ιαβαδίου or Σαβαδίου).[37][38]

According to Chinese recordMíng Shǐ,the Javanese kingdom was founded in 65 BC, or 143 years before the story of Aji Saka began.[39]: 39 

The story of Aji Saka is a Neo Javanese story. This story has not yet been found to be relevant in the Old Javanese text. This story tells of events in the Medang Kamulan kingdom in Java in the past. At that time, the king of Medang Kamulan Prabu Dewata Cengkar was replaced by Aji Saka. This story is considered as an allegory of the entry of Indians into Java. Referring to theLiang dynastyinformation, the Javanese kingdom was divided into two: the pre-Hinduism kingdom and the post-Hindu kingdom, which began in 78 AD.[15]: 5 and 7 

Hindu–Buddhist kingdoms era

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See also:History of Southeast Asia § Early historical era
The 9th centuryBorobudurBuddhiststupain Central Java

TheTarumaandSundakingdoms of western Java appeared in the 4th and 7th centuries respectively, while theKalingga Kingdomsent embassies to China starting in 640.[40]: 53, 79 However, the first major principality was theMataram Kingdomthat was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Mataram's religion centered on the Hindu godShiva,and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on theDieng Plateau.Around the 8th century, theSailendra dynastyrose inKedu Plainand become the patron ofMahayanaBuddhism.This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th centuryBorobudurandPrambananin central Java.[citation needed]

Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms ofKediri,SinghasariandMajapahitwere mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established byWijaya,[40]: 201 and by the end of the reign ofHayam Wuruk(r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister,Gajah Mada,led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests.[40]: 234 Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and thecoming of Islam to Indonesia,Majapahit went into decline.[40]: 241 

Spread of Islam and rise of Islamic sultanates

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See also:Spread of Islam in Indonesia § Central and eastern Java

Islam became the dominant religion in Java at the end of the 16th century. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms ofDemak,Cirebon,andBantenwere ascendant. TheMataram Sultanatebecame the dominant power of central and eastern Java at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face the Dutch in the 17th century.

Colonial periods

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Tea plantation in Java duringDutch colonial period,in or before 1926

Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 witha treatybetween the Sunda kingdom and thePortuguese in Malacca.After its failure, thePortuguese presencewas confined to Malacca and to the eastern islands. In 1596, a four-ship expedition led byCornelis de Houtmanwas the first Dutch contact with Indonesia.[41]By the end of the 18th century the Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior through theDutch East India Company in Indonesia.Internal conflict prevented the Javanese from forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. Javanese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of a Javanese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration.

Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of rice. In spice-producing islands likeBanda,rice was regularly imported from Java, to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence.[42]

British Occupation of Java; men of the Bengal Sappers and Miners burn houses in the village of Bekasi as a reprisal for the murder of five members of the Royal Air Force and twenty Maharatta riflemen whose Dakota transport aircraft crash-landed near the village.

During theNapoleonic warsin Europe, theNetherlandsfell toFrance,as did its colony in theEast Indies.During the short-livedDaendelsadministration, as French proxy rule on Java, the construction of theGreat Post Roadwas commenced in 1808. The road, spanning fromAnyerin Western Java to Panarukan in East Java, served as a military supply route and was used in defending Java from British invasion.[43]In 1811, Java wascaptured by the British,becoming a possession of theBritish Empire,and SirStamford Raffleswas appointed as the island's governor. In 1816, under the governorship ofJohn Fendall,Java was returned to the Dutch as per the terms of theTreaty of Paris.[44][45]

In 1815, there may have been five million people in Java.[46]In the second half of the 18th century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of Java, and in the 19th century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for the great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in Java, the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such ascassavaandmaizethat could sustain populations that could not afford rice.[47]Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under theCultivation Systemto which couples responded by having more children in the hope of increasing their families ability to pay tax and buy goods.[48]Choleraclaimed 100,000 lives in Java in 1820.[49]

Japanese prepare to discuss surrender terms with British-allied forces in Java, 1945.

The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in Java, and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in Java from the 1840s through to theJapanese occupationin the 1940s.[50]However, other sources claimed the Dutch's Cultivation system is linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, firstly inCirebonand thenCentral Java,as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice.

Independence

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Main article:Indonesian National Awakening

Indonesiannationalism first took hold in Java in the early 20th century, andthe struggle to secure the country's independencefollowingWorld War IIwas centered in Java. In 1949, Indonesian independence was recognized.

Administration

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See also:Public administration of Java
Banten
West Java
Central Java
East Java
1
2
1 Jakarta
2 Yogyakarta

Java is divided into fourprovincesand two special regions:[20]

Demographics

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Demographic profile

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Jakarta,the capital ofIndonesia
Historical population
YearPop.±%
196163,059,575—
197176,086,320+20.7%
198091,269,528+20.0%
1990107,581,306+17.9%
2000121,352,608+12.8%
2010136,610,590+12.6%
2015145,013,583+6.2%
2020151,591,262+4.5%
2023156,391,145+3.2%
Refers to the administrative region (including Madura).
Source:[51][52][53]

Java has been traditionally dominated by an elite class, while the people in the lower classes were often involved in agriculture and fishing. The elite class in Java has evolved over the course of history, as cultural wave after cultural wave immigrated to the island. There is evidence that South Asian emigres were among this elite, as well as Arabian and Persian immigrants during the Islamic eras. More recently, Chinese immigrants have also become part of the economic elite of Java. Although politically the Chinese generally remain sidelined, there are notable exceptions, such as the former governor of Jakarta,Basuki Tjahaja Purnama.Though Java is increasingly becoming more modern and urban, only 75% of the island has electricity. Villages and their rice paddies are still a common sight. Unlike the rest of Java, the population growth in Central Java remains low. Central Java however has a younger population than the national average.[54]The slow population growth can in part be attributed to the choice by many people to leave the more rural Central Java for better opportunities and higher incomes in the bigger cities.[55]Java's population continues to rapidly increase despite many Javanese leaving the island. This is somewhat due to the fact that Java is the business, academic, and cultural hub of Indonesia, which attracts millions of non-Javanese people to its cities. The population growth is most intense in the regions surroundingJakartaandBandung,which is reflected through the demographic diversity in those areas.[citation needed]

Population development

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Population density of Java and Madura by subdistrict as of 2022, with major urban areas shown

Java is themost populous major island in the worldand is home to 56% of Indonesia's population, with a combined population of 156.4 million according to the official estimates as at mid 2023 (including Madura's 4.06 million).[56]At nearly 1,185 people per km2in 2023, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on a par withBangladesh.Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.[citation needed]

The population growth rate more than doubled in economically depressed Central Java in the latest 2010–2020 period vs 2000–2010, indicative of migration or other issues; there were significantvolcanic eruptionsduring the earlier period. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically Javanese,[57]while Sundanese make a large portion of Java's population as well.

The western third of the island (West Java, Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density, of roughly 1,563 per square kilometre and accounts for most of the population growth of Java.[56]It is home to three metropolitan areas,Greater Jakarta(with outlying areas of GreaterSerangand GreaterSukabumi),Greater Bandung,and GreaterCirebon.[citation needed]

Province or Special Region Capital Area
km2 		Area
% 		Population
census
2000[58] 		Population
census
2010[59] 		Population
census
2020[60] 		Population
estimate
mid 2023[61] 		Population
density
mid 2023
Banten Serang 9,352.77 7.1 8,098,277 10,632,166 11,904,562 12,307,732 1,316
Special Region of Jakarta – 660.98 0.5 8,361,079 9,607,787 10,562,088 11,350,328 17,172
West Java Bandung 37,040.04 27.1 35,724,093 43,053,732 48,274,160 49,860,330 1,346
Western Java
(3 areas above) 		47,053.79 34.7 52,183,449 63,293,685 70,740,810 73,518,390 1,563
Central Java Semarang 33,750.37 25.3 31,223,258 32,382,657 36,516,035 37,608,336 1,114
Yogyakarta Special Region Yogyakarta 3,170.65 2.4 3,121,045 3,457,491 3,668,719 3,736,489 1,178
Central Java Region
(2 areas above) 		36,921.02 27.7 34,344,303 35,840,148 40,184,754 41,344,825 1,120
East Java Surabaya 48,036.84 37.3 34,765,993 37,476,757 40,665,696 41,527,930 865
Region Administered asJava Jakarta 132,011.65 100% 121,293,745 136,610,590 151,591,260 156,391,145 1,185
MaduraIsland(1)of East Java
 – 5,408.45 3.3 3,230,300 3,622,763 4,004,564 4,060,713 751
Java Island(2)
 – 126,603.20 96.7 118,063,445 132,987,827 147,586,696 152,330,432 1,203

(1) including (all withinSumenep Regency) the neighbouring small archipelagos of theKangean Islands(648.55 km2), theSapudi Islands(167.41 km2),Talango Island(50.278 km2),Masalembu(40.85 km2) and theGiligenteng Islands(30.32 km2).
(2) Other offshore islands are included in this figure, but are comparatively very small in population and area; they includeNusa Barong(100 km2),Bawean(196 km2),Karimunjawa(78 km2),Nusa Kambangan(121 km2),Panaitan(170 km2), and theThousand Islands(8.7 km2) – with a combined population of roughly 90,000.

(3) Land area of provinces updated in mid 2023 regency/city annual statistics.

From the 1970s to the fall of theSuhartoregime in 1998, the Indonesian government rantransmigration programsaimed at resettling the population of Java on other less populated islands of Indonesia. This program has met with mixed results, sometimes causing conflicts between the locals and the recently arrivedsettlers.Nevertheless, it has caused Java's share of the nation's population to progressively decline.

Jakarta and its outskirts, being the dominant metropolis, is also home to people from all over the nation. East Java is also home to ethnic Balinese, as well as large numbers of Madurans due to their historic poverty.

Ethnicity and culture

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See also:Culture of Indonesia,Music of Java,andMusic of Sunda
Betawi mask dance(Tari Topeng Betawi)
SambaSundamusic performance, featuring traditionalSundanese musicinstruments
Lakshmana,RamaandShintainRamayanaballet atPrambanan,Java

Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—theJavaneseandSundanese.A third group is theMadurese,who inhabit the island ofMaduraoff the northeast coast of Java, and have immigrated toEast Javain large numbers since the 18th century.[62]The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population, while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 38% and 10% respectively.[62]The fourth group is theBetawi peoplethat speak a dialect ofMalay,they are the descendants of the people living aroundBataviafrom around the 17th century. Betawis arecreole people,mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such asMalay,Sundanese,Javanese,Balinese,Minang,Bugis,Makassar,Ambonese,mixed with foreign ethnic groups such asPortuguese,Dutch,Arab,ChineseandIndianbrought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have a culture and language distinct from the surroundingSundaneseandJavanese.[citation needed]

The Javanese prose textTantu Pagelaran(c. 15th century) explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature.[citation needed]

Four major cultural areas exist on the island: the central part of Java orYogyakartais the Javanese people heartland and the north coast of thepasisirregion, theSundalands (Sundanese:ᮒᮒᮁ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ,TatarSunda) in the western part of Java andParahyanganas the heartland, theeastern salient of Javaalso known asBlambangan.Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal eastern Java.[62]Thekejawen of Javaneseculture is the island's most dominant. Java's remaining aristocracy is based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as the island's most refined and exemplary.[62]The territory fromBanyumasin the west through toBlitarin the east and encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land.[62]

In the southwestern part of Central Java, which is usually named theBanyumasanregion, a cultural mingling occurred; bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create theBanyumasanculture.[63]In the central Javanese court cities ofYogyakartaandSurakarta,contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java includegamelanmusic andwayangpuppet shows.[64]

Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region,[65]and as a result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These includeKen ArokandKen Dedes,the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations ofRamayanaandMahabharata.Pramoedya Ananta Toeris a famous contemporary Indonesian author, who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java, and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends.

Languages

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Languages spoken in Java (Javanese is shown in white). "Malay" refers toBetawi,the local dialect as one of Malay creole dialect.

The three major languages spoken on Java areJavanese,SundaneseandMadurese.Other languages spoken includeBetawi(aMalaydialect local to the Jakarta region),Osing,Banyumasan,andTenggerese(closely related to Javanese),BaduyandBantenese(closely related to Sundanese),Kangeanese(closely related to Madurese), andBalinese.[66]The vast majority of the population also speaksIndonesian,often as a second language.[67]

Religion

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Religion in Java (2023)[68]

Islam(96.06%)
Protestant(2.26%)
Roman Catholic(1.07%)
Buddhism(0.48%)
Hinduism(0.11%)
Aliran Kepercayaan(0.01%)
Confucianism(0.013%)

Indianinfluences came first withShaivismandBuddhismpenetrating deeply into society, blending with indigenous tradition and culture.[69]Oneconduitfor this were theascetics,calledresi,who taught mystical practices. Aresilived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts,Brahminclerics andpudjangga(sacred literati) legitimised rulers and linkedHinducosmology to their political needs.[69]SmallHinduenclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a largeHindupopulation along the eastern coast nearestBali,especially around the town ofBanyuwangi.[citation needed]

The coming ofIslam,strengthened the status structure of this traditional religious pattern. More than 90 percent of the people of Java areSunniMuslims with very minority beingShiaandAhmadis(respectively 1% and 0.2%), on a broad continuum betweenabangan(more traditional) andsantri(more modernist). Muslim scholars (Kyai) became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formalpriesthood,but theDutch colonial governmentestablished an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanesepesantren(Islamic schools), TheKyaiperpetuated the tradition of theresi.Students around him provided his needs, evenpeasantsaround the school.[69]

Pre-Islamic Javan traditions have encouraged Islam in a mystical direction. There emerged in Java a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving aroundkyais,possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamiclore,beliefand practice.[69]The kyais are the principal intermediaries between the villages masses and the realm of thesupernatural.However, this very looseneess of kyai leadership structure has promotedschism.There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taughtmysticismand those who sought to reform Islam with modern scientific concepts. As a result, there is a division betweensantri,who believe that they are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, withabangan,who have mixed pre-Islamicanimisticand Hindu-Indian concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief.[69]

There are alsoChristiancommunities, mostly in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central Java are stronglyRoman Catholic.Buddhistcommunities also exist in the major cities, primarily among theChinese Indonesian.The Indonesian constitution recognises six official religions.

A wider effect of this division is the number of sects. In the middle of 1956, the Department of Religious Affairs inYogyakartareported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 35 were inCentral Java,22 inWest Javaand six inEast Java.[69]These includeKejawen,Sumarah,Subud,etc. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.[70]Sunda Wiwitanis a traditionalSundanesereligion, its adherents still exist in several villages.[71]

Economy

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Water buffaloploughingrice fieldsnearSalatiga,inCentral Java

Initially the economy of Java relied heavily onriceagriculture. Ancient kingdoms such as theKingdoms of Sunda,Mataram,andMajapahitwere dependent on rice yields and tax. Java was famous for rice surpluses and rice export since ancient times, and rice agriculture contributed to the population growth of the island. Trade with other parts of Asia such as ancient India and China flourished as early as the 4th century, as evidenced by Chinese ceramics found on the island dated to that period. Java also took part in the global trade ofMalukuspicefrom ancient times in the Majapahit era, until well into theDutch East India Company(VOC) era.[72]

Java transport network

The VOC set their foothold onBataviain the 17th century and was succeeded by theDutch East Indiesin the 19th century. During these colonial times, the Dutch introduced the cultivation of commercial plants in Java, such assugarcane,rubber,coffee,tea,andquinine.In the 19th and early 20th century, Javanese coffee gained global popularity. Thus, the name "Java" today has become a synonym for coffee.[73][74][75][76]

"Welcome!" statueinCentral Jakarta

Java has been Indonesia's most developed island since the Dutch East Indies era and continues to be so today in the modern Republic of Indonesia. The road transportation networks that have existed since ancient times were connected and perfected with the construction ofJava Great Post RoadbyDaendelsin the early 19th century. It became the backbone of Java's road infrastructure and laid the base ofJava North Coast Road(Indonesian:Jalan Pantura, abbreviation from "Pantai Utara"). The need to transport commercial produces such as coffee from plantations in the interior of the island to the harbour on the coast spurred the construction of railway networks in Java. Today, industry, business, trade and services flourished in major cities of Java, such asJakarta,Surabaya,Semarang,andBandung;while some traditional Sultanate cities such asYogyakarta,Surakarta,andCirebonpreserved its royal legacy and has become the centre of art, culture and tourism. Industrial estates are also growing in towns on northern coast of Java, especially aroundCilegon,Tangerang,Bekasi,Karawang,GresikandSidoarjo.Thetoll roadhighway networks was built and expanded since the New Order until the present day, connecting major urban centres and surrounding areas, such as in and aroundJakartaandBandung;also the ones inCirebon,SemarangandSurabaya.In addition to these motorways, Java has 16 national highways.

Based on the statistical data by the year of 2021 released byStatistics Indonesia(Badan Pusat Statistik), Java alone contributes around 60% of Indonesia's GDP or equivalent to US$686 billion (int$2.0 trillion, PPP).[77]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^/ˈdʒɑːvə,ˈdʒævə/;[1]Indonesian:Jawa,pronounced[ˈdʒawa];Javanese:ꦗꦮ;Sundanese:ᮏᮝ

References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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  • Javatravel guide from Wikivoyage
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