Wikipedia

Jihadism

"Jihadist" redirects here. For the Islamic doctrine, seeJihad.
"Revolutionary Islamism" redirects here. For the 2003 book by Carlos the Jackal, seeRevolutionary Islam.For Islam and socialist revolution, seeIslamic socialism.

Jihadismis aneologismformilitantIslamic movementsthat seek to base the state on Islamic principles.[1][2]In a narrower sense, it refers to the belief held by some Muslims that armed confrontation with political rivals is an efficient and theologically legitimate method of socio-political change.[3][4]It is a form ofreligious violenceand has been applied to variousinsurgentIslamic extremist,militantIslamist,andterroristindividuals and organizations whose ideologies are based on theIslamicnotion oflesser jihadfrom the classical interpretation of Islam.[9]It has also been applied to variousIslamic empiresin history, such as theRashidunandUmayyadcaliphates of theearly Muslim conquests,and theOttoman Empire.[10][11]There were also theFula jihadsin West Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries.[12][13]

Territorial presence of jihadist groups and overview of the situation in each region

Modern jihadism mostly has its roots in the late 19th- and early 20th-century ideological developments ofIslamic revivalism,which further developed intoQutbismand related Islamist ideologies during the 20th and 21st centuries.[6][14][15]The jihadist ideologues envisionedjihadas a "revolutionary struggle" against thesecularinternational orderto unite theMuslim worldunder the "rule of God".[16]The Islamist volunteer organisations which participated in theSoviet–Afghan Warof 1979 to 1989 reinforced the rise of jihadism, which has been propagated during variousarmed conflictsthroughout the 1990s and 2000s.[17][18]

Jihadist organizations and rebel groups have become more prominent since the 1990s; by one estimate, 5 percent of civil wars involved jihadist groups in 1990 but more than 40 percent in 2014.[19]French political scientistGilles Kepelhas diagnosed a specificSalafist form of jihadismwithin theSalafi movementof the 1990s.[20]Jihadism with an international,pan-Islamistscope is also known asglobal jihadism.[23]Studies show that with the rise of theIslamic State,some Muslim volunteers that came both fromWestern countriesandMuslim-majority countriestraveled to join theglobaljihadin Syria and Iraq.[29]

Terminology

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Main article:Jihad
Jihadist variationof theBlack Standardas used by variousIslamist organizationssince the late 1990s, which consists of theShahadain white script centered on a black background.

The concept ofjihad( "exerting" / "striving" / "struggling" ) is fundamental to Islam and has multiple uses, withgreater jihad(internal jihad) meaninginternal struggleagainst evil in oneself, andlesser jihad(external jihad), which is further subdivided intojihad of the pen/tongue(debate or persuasion) andjihad of the sword(warfare). The latter form ofjihadhas meant conquest and conversion in the classical Islamic interpretation, usually exceptingfollowers of other monotheistic religions,[30][31][32]whilemodernist Islamic scholarsgenerally equate militaryjihadwith defensive warfare.[33][34]Much of the contemporary Muslim opinion considers internaljihadto have primacy over externaljihadin the Islamic tradition, while many Western writers favor the opposite view.[31]Today, the wordjihadis often used without religious connotations, like the Englishcrusade.

The term "jihadism" has been in use since the 1990s, more widely in the aftermath of the9/11 attacks.[35]It was first used by the Indian and Pakistani mass media, and by French academics who used the more exact term "jihadist-Salafist".[Note 1]Historian David A. Charters defines "jihadism" as "a revolutionary program whose ideology promises radical social change in theMuslim world... [with] a central role tojihadas an armed political struggle to overthrow "apostate"regimes, to expel theirinfidelallies, and thus to restoreMuslim landsto governance by Islamic principles. "[16]

David Romano, researcher of political science at theMcGill UniversityinMontreal, Quebec,has defined his use of the term as referring to "an individual or political movement that primarily focuses its attention, discourse, and activities on the conduct of a violent, uncompromising campaign that they term ajihad".[36]Following Daniel Kimmage, he distinguishes the jihadist discourse of jihad as a global project to remake the world from the resistance discourse of groups likeHezbollah,which is framed as a regional project against a specific enemy.[36]

"Jihadism" has been defined otherwise as aneologismformilitant,predominantlySunnīIslamic movementsthat useideologically motivated violenceto defend theUmmah(the collectiveMuslim world) from foreignNon-Muslimsand those that they perceive asdomestic infidels.[2][37]The term "jihadist globalism" is also often used in relation toIslamic terrorismas aglobalistideology, and more broadly to theWar on Terror.[38]The Austrian-American academicManfred B. Steger,Professor ofSociologyat theUniversity of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa,proposed an extension of the term "jihadist globalism" to apply to all extremely violent strains of religiously influenced ideologies that articulate the global imaginary into concrete political agendas and terrorist strategies; these includeal-Qaeda,Jemaah Islamiyah,Hamas,andHezbollah,which he finds "today's most spectacular manifestation of religious globalism".[39]

According to the Jewish-Americanpolitical scientistBarak Mendelsohn, "the overwhelming majority ofMuslimsreject jihadi views of Islam. Furthermore, as the cases ofSaudiandother Gulf regimesshow, states may gain domestic legitimacy through economic development and social change, rather than based on religion and piety ".[2]Many Muslims do not use the terms "jihadism" or "jihadist", disliking the association of illegitimate violence with a noble religious concept, and instead prefer the use of delegitimising terms like "deviants".[35][Note 2]Maajid Nawaz,founder and chairman of the anti-extremism think tankQuilliam,defines jihadism as a violent subset ofIslamism:"Islamism [is] the desire to impose any version of Islam over any society. Jihadism is the attempt to do so by force."[41]

"Jihad Cool"is a term for the re-branding of militant jihadism as fashionable, or"cool",to younger people throughconsumer culture,social media, magazines,[42]rap videos,[43]toys,propaganda videos,[44]and other means.[45][46]It is asubculturemainly applied to individuals in developed nations who are recruited to travel to conflict zones on jihad. For example, jihadi rap videos make participants look "moreMTVthan Mosque ", according toNPR,which was the first to report on the phenomenon in 2010.[45]To justify their acts ofreligious violence,jihadist individuals and networks resort to the nonbinding genre of Islamic legal literature (fatwa) developed by jihadi-Salafist legal authorities, whose legal writings are shared and spread via the Internet.[47]

According to Reuven Firestone, Jihadism as commonly used in Western sources describes "militant Islamic movements that are perceived as existentially threatening to the West."[48]

History

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See also:Islamic fundamentalism,Salafi movement,andWahhabism
Further information:International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism,International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism by region,andPetro-Islam
Afghan mujahideenpraying in theKunar Province,Afghanistan (1987)

Key influences

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Main article:Khawarij
Further information:QutbismandTakfirism

The term “jihadism” has been applied to variousIslamic empiresin history, such as theArabUmayyad Caliphateand theOttoman empire,who extensively campaigned against non-Muslim nations in the name of jihad.[10][11]

Islamic extremismdates back to theearly history of Islamwith the emergence of theKharijitesin the 7th century CE.[49]The original schism betweenKharijites,Sunnīs,andShīʿasamong Muslims was disputed over thepolitical and religious successionto the guidance of the Muslim community (Ummah) after the death of theIslamic prophetMuhammad.[49]From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims.[49]Shīʿas believeʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālibis the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnīs considerAbu Bakrto hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the Shīʿas and the Sunnīs during theFirst Fitna(the first Islamic Civil War);[49]they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach totakfīr(excommunication), whereby they declared both Sunnī and Shīʿa Muslims to be eitherinfidels(kuffār) orfalse Muslims(munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed themworthy of deathfor their perceivedapostasy(ridda).[49][50][51]

Osama bin LadenandAyman al-Zawahiriofal-Qaedapromoted the overthrow of secular governments.[52][53][54]

Sayyid Qutb,an Egyptian Islamist ideologue and a prominent leader of theMuslim Brotherhoodin Egypt, was an influential promoter of thePan-Islamistideologyduring the 1960s.[55]When he was executed by theEgyptian governmentunder theregime of Gamal Abdel Nasser,Ayman al-ZawahiriformedEgyptian Islamic Jihad,an organization which seeks to replace the government with an Islamic state that would reflect Qutb's ideas about theIslamic revivalthat he yearned for.[56]TheQutbist ideologyhas been influential among jihadist movements andIslamic terroristswho seek to overthrow secular governments, most notablyOsama bin Ladenand Ayman al-Zawahiri ofal-Qaeda,[52][53][54]as well as theSalafi-jihaditerrorist groupISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh.[57]Moreover, Qutb's books have been frequently been cited by Osama bin Laden andAnwar al-Awlaki.[58][59][60][61][62][63]

Sayyid Qutb could be said to have founded the actual movement of radical Islam.[8][54][55]Unlike the other Islamic thinkers who have been mentioned above, Qutb was not anapologist.[8]He was a prominent leader of the Muslim Brotherhood and a highly influential Islamist ideologue,[8][54]and the first to articulate these anathemizing principles in his magnum opusFī ẓilāl al-Qurʾān(In the shade of the Qurʾān) and his 1966 manifestoMaʿālim fīl-ṭarīq(Milestones), which lead to his execution by the Egyptian government.[8][64]Other Salafi movements in theMiddle East and North Africaand Salafi movements across theMuslim worldadopted many of his Islamist principles.[8][54]

According to Qutb, the Muslim community (Ummah) has been extinct for several centuries and it has also reverted tojahiliyah(the pre-Islamic age of ignorance) because those who call themselves Muslims have failed to follow thesharialaw.[8][54]In order to restore Islam, bring back its days of glory, and free the Muslims from the clasps of ignorance, Qutb proposed the shunning of modern society, establishing a vanguard which was modeled after the early Muslims, preaching, and bracing oneself forpovertyor even bracing oneself for death in preparation forjihadagainst what he perceived was ajahiligovernment/society, and the overthrow of them.[8][54]Qutbism,the radical Islamist ideology which is derived from the ideas of Qutb,[54]was denounced by many prominent Muslim scholars as well as by other members of the Muslim Brotherhood, likeYusuf al-Qaradawi.

Islamic revivalism and Salafism (1990s to present)

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Main articles:Islamic revivalandSalafi jihadism
Ablack flagreportedly used byCaucasian jihadistsin 2002 displays the phraseal-jihadfi sabilillahabove thetakbirand two crossedswords.
Flag ofISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh

According toRudolph Peters,scholar ofIslamic studiesand thehistory of Islam,contemporary traditionalist Muslims "copy phrases of the classical works onfiqh"in their writings on jihad;Islamic modernists"emphasize the defensive aspect of jihad, regarding it as tantamount tobellum justumin modern international law; and the contemporary fundamentalists (Abul A'la Maududi,Sayyid Qutb,Abdullah Azzam,etc.) view it as a struggle for the expansion of Islam and the realization of Islamic ideals. "[65]

Some of the earlierIslamic scholarsandtheologianswho had profound influence onIslamic fundamentalismand the ideology of contemporary jihadism include the medieval Muslim thinkersIbn Taymiyyah,Ibn Kathir,andMuhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,alongside the modern Islamist ideologuesMuhammad Rashid Rida,Sayyid Qutb, and Abul A'la Maududi.[7][15][21][66][67]Jihad has been propagated in modern fundamentalism beginning in the late 19th century, an ideology that arose in the context of struggles againstcolonial powersin North Africa at that time, as in theMahdist Warin Sudan, and notably in the mid-20th century byIslamic revivalistauthors such as Sayyid Qutb and Abul Ala Maududi.[68]

The termjihadism(earlierSalafi jihadism) has arisen in the 2000s to refer to the contemporary jihadi movements, the development of which was in retrospect traced to developments ofSalafismpaired with the origins ofal-Qaedain theSoviet–Afghan Warduring the 1990s. Jihadism has been called an "offshoot" of Islamic revivalism of the 1960s and 1970s. The writings of Sayyid Qutb andMohammed Abdul-Salam Faragprovide inspiration. The Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989) is said to have "amplified the jihadist tendency from a fringe phenomenon to a major force in theMuslim world."[69]It served to produce foot soldiers, leadership and organization.Abdullah Yusuf Azzamprovided propaganda for the Afghan cause. After the war, veteran jihadists returned to their home countries, and from there would disperse to other sites of conflict involving Muslim populations, such as Algeria,Bosnia,andChechnya,creating a "transnational jihadist stream."[70]

An explanation for jihadist willingness to kill civilians and self-professed Muslims on the grounds that they were actuallyapostates(takfīr) is the vastly reduced influence of the traditional diverse class ofulama,often highly educated Islamic jurists. In "the vast majority" of Muslim countries during the post-colonial world of the 1950s and 1960s, the private religious endowments (awqāf) that had supported the independence of Islamic scholars and jurists for centuries were taken over by the state. The jurists were made salaried employees and the nationalist rulers naturally encouraged their employees (and their employees' interpretations of Islam) to serve the rulers' interests. Inevitably, the jurists came to be seen by the Muslim public as doing this.[71]

Into this vacuum of religious authority cameaggressive proselytizing,funded by tens of billions of dollars ofpetroleum-export moneyfromSaudi Arabia.[72]The version of Islam being propagated (Saudi doctrine ofWahhabism) billed itself as a return to pristine, simple, straightforward Islam,[73]not oneschoolamong many, and not interpretingIslamic lawhistorically or contextually, but as the one, orthodox "straight path" of Islam.[73]Unlike the traditional teachings of the jurists, who tolerated and even celebrated divergent opinions and schools of thought and kept extremism marginalized, Wahhabism had "extreme hostility" to "any sectarian divisions within Islam".[73]

In Iraq, resentment amongst Sunnis over their marginalization after thefall of Ba'athist regimeled to the rise of jihadist networks in the region, which resulted in theal-Qaeda led insurgency in Iraq.[74]De-Ba'athificationpolicy initiated by thenew governmentled to rise in support of jihadists and remnants ofIraqi Ba'athistsstarted allying with al-Qaeda in their common fight against the United States.[75]Iraq War journalistGeorge Packerwrites inThe Assassins' Gate:

"The Iraq War proved some of theBush administration's assertions false, and it made others self-fulfilling. One of these was the insistence on an operational link between Iraq and al-Qaeda... after the fall of the regime, the most potent ideological force behind the insurgency was Islam and its hostility to non-Islamic intruders. Some former Baathist officials even stopped drinking and took to prayer. The insurgency was calledmukawama,or resistance, with overtones of religious legitimacy; its fighters becamemujahideen,holy warriors; they proclaimed their mission to bejihad."[76][77]

Originating in theJaish al-Ta'ifa al-Mansurahfounded byAbu Omar al-Baghdadiin 2004, the organization (primarily under theIslamic State of Iraqname) affiliated itself withal-Qaeda in Iraqand fought alongside them during the2003–2006 phase of the Iraqi insurgency.The group later changed their name to Islamic State of Iraq and Levant for about a year,[78][79]before declaring itself to be a worldwidecaliphate,[80][81]called simply theIslamic State.[82]They are a transnationalSalafi jihadistgroup and anunrecognisedquasi-state.IS gained global prominence in 2014, when their militants conquered large territories in northwestern Iraq and eastern Syria, taking advantage of the ongoingcivil war in Syriaand the disintegrating local military forces of Iraq. By the end of 2015, their self-declaredcaliphateruled an area with a population of about 12 million,[83][84]where they enforced their extremist interpretation ofIslamic law,managed an annual budget exceedingUS$1billion, and commanded more than 30,000 fighters.[85]After a grinding conflict with American, Iraqi, and Kurdish forces, IS lost control of all their Middle Eastern territories by 2019, subsequently reverting to insurgency from remote hideouts while continuing theirpropaganda efforts.These efforts have garnered a significant following in northern andSahelianAfrica,[86][87]where IS still controls a significant territory, and thewar against the Islamic Statecontinues.[88][89]

Shia jihad

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The termjihadistis almost exclusively used to describeSunniextremists.[90]One example is Syria, where there have been thousands of foreign Muslim fighters engaged in thecivil war,for example, non-SyrianShiaare often referred to as "militia", and Sunni foreigners as "jihadists" (or "would-be jihadists" ).[Note 3][Note 4]One who does use the term "Shia jihad" is Danny Postel, who complains that "this Shia jihad is largely left out of the dominant narrative."[93][94]Other authors see the ideology of "resistance" (Arabic:muqawama) as more dominant, even among extremist Shia groups. For clarity, they suggest use of the term "muqawamist "instead.[95]Yemen's Houthi rebels have often called for "jihad" to resistSaudi Arabia's intervention,even though theHouthi movementfrom theZaidism,is closer to Sunni in theology than other Shi'a sect.[96][97]

Beliefs

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According to Shadi Hamid and Rashid Dar, jihadism is driven by the idea that jihad is an "individual obligation" (fard‘ayn) incumbent upon allMuslims.This is in contrast with the belief of Muslims up until now (and by contemporary non-jihadists) that jihad is a "collective obligation" (fard al-kifaya) carried out according to orders of legitimate representatives of the Muslim community. Jihadist insist all Muslims should participate because (they believe) today's Muslim leaders are illegitimate and do not command the authority to ordain justified violence.[98]

Evolution of jihad

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TheHouthiflag, with the top saying "God is the greatest",the next line saying"Death to America",followed by"Death to Israel",followed by"A curse upon the Jews",and the bottom saying"Victory to Islam".

Some observers[6][99][100]have noted the evolution in the rules of jihad—from the original "classical" doctrine to that of 21st-centurySalafi jihadism.[101]According to thelegal historianSadarat Kadri,[99]during the last couple of centuries, incremental changes in Islamic legal doctrine (developed by Islamists who otherwise condemn anybid‘ah(innovation) in religion), have "normalized" what was once "unthinkable".[99]"The very idea that Muslims might blow themselves up for God was unheard of before 1983, and it was not until the early 1990s that anyone anywhere had tried to justify killing innocent Muslims who were not on a battlefield."[99]

The first or the "classical" doctrine of jihad which was developed towards the end of the 8th century, emphasized the "jihad of the sword" (jihad bil-saif) rather than the "jihad of the heart",[102]but it contained many legal restrictions which were developed from interpretations of both theQuranand theHadith,such as detailed rules involving "the initiation, the conduct, the termination" of jihad, the treatment of prisoners, the distribution of booty, etc. Unless there was a sudden attack on the Muslim community, jihad was not a "personal obligation" (fard ‘ayn); instead it was a "collective one" (fard al-kifaya),[103]which had to be discharged "in the way of God" (fi sabil Allah),[104]and it could only be directed by thecaliph,"whose discretion over its conduct was all but absolute."[104](This was designed in part to avoid incidents like theKharijia's jihad against and killing ofCaliph Ali,since they deemed that he was no longer a Muslim).[6]Martyrdomresulting from an attack on the enemy with no concern for your own safety was praiseworthy, but dying by your own hand (as opposed to the enemy's) merited a special place inHell.[105]The category of jihad which is considered to be a collective obligation is sometimes simplified as "offensive jihad" in Western texts.[106]

Scholars likeAbul Ala Maududi,Abdullah Azzam,Ruhollah Khomeini,leaders of al-Qaeda and others, believe that defensive global jihad is a personal obligation, which means that no caliph or Muslim head of state needs to declare it. Killing yourself in the process of killing the enemy is an act ofShuhada(martyrdom) and it brings you a special place inHeaven,not a special place inHell;and the killing of Muslim bystanders (nevermindNon-Muslims), should not impede acts of jihad. Military and intelligent analystSebastian Gorkadescribed the new interpretation of jihad as the "willful targeting of civilians by a non-state actor through unconventional means."[107][100]Al-Qaeda's splinter groups and competitors,Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihadand theIslamic State of Iraq and Syria,are thought to have been heavily influenced[101][108][109][110][111]by a 2004 work on jihad entitledManagement of Savagery(Idarat at-Tawahhush),[101]written by Abu Bakr Naji[101]and intended to provide a strategy to create a new Islamiccaliphateby first destroying "vital economic and strategic targets" and terrifying the enemy with cruelty to break its will.[112]

Islamic theologian Abu Abdullah al-Muhajir has been identified as one of the key theorists andideologuesbehind modern jihadist violence.[101][113][114][115]His theological and legal justifications influencedAbu Musab al-Zarqawi,al-Qaeda member and former leader ofal-Qaeda in Iraq,as well as several other jihadi terrorist groups, includingISILandBoko Haram.[101][113][114][115]Zarqawi used a 579-page manuscript of al-Muhajir's ideas at AQI training camps that were later deployed by ISIL, known in Arabic asFiqh al-Dimaand referred to in English asThe Jurisprudence of JihadorThe Jurisprudence of Blood.[101][113][114][115][116]The book has been described by counter-terrorism scholar Orwa Ajjoub as rationalizing and justifying "suicide operations, the mutilation of corpses, beheading, and the killing of children and non-combatants".[101]The Guardian's journalist Mark Towsend, citing Salah al-Ansari ofQuilliam,notes: "There is a startling lack of study and concern regarding this abhorrent and dangerous text [The Jurisprudence of Blood] in almost all Western and Arab scholarship ".[115]Charlie Winter ofThe Atlanticdescribes it as a "theological playbook used to justify the group's abhorrent acts".[114]He states:

Ranging from ruminations on the merits of beheading, torturing, or burning prisoners to thoughts on assassination, siege warfare, and the use of biological weapons, Muhajir's intellectual legacy is a crucial component of theliterary corpus of ISIS—and, indeed, whatever comes after it—a way to render practically anything permissible, provided, that is, it can be spun as beneficial to the jihad. [...] According to Muhajir,committing suicide to kill peopleis not only a theologically sound act, but a commendable one, too, something to be cherished and celebrated regardless of its outcome. [...] neither Zarqawi nor his inheritors have looked back, liberally using Muhajir's work to normalize the use of suicide tactics in the time since, such that they have become the single most important military and terrorist method—defensive or offensive—used by ISIS today. The way that Muhajir theorized it was simple—he offered up a theological fix that allows any who desire it to sidestep the Koranic injunctions against suicide.[114]

Clinical psychologistChris E. Stoutalso discusses the al Muhajir-inspired text in his essay,Terrorism, Political Violence, and Extremism(2017). He assesses that jihadists regard their actions as being "for the greater good"; that they are in a "weakened in the earth" situation that rendersIslamic terrorisma valid means of solution.[116]

List of conflicts

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Conflict Dates Groups involved Country/ies Sources
Soviet–Afghan War 1979-1989 Afghan mujahideen Afghanistan
Afghan Civil War (1989–1992) 1989-1992 Afghan mujahideenandAl Qaeda Afghanistan
Kashmir conflict 1990-present Lashkar-e-Taiba Pakistan
Somali Civil War 1991-present Al Shabaab Somalia
Algerian Civil War 1991-2002 Armed Islamic Group Algeria
Bosnian war 1992-1995 Bosnian mujahideen Bosnia and Herzegovina
Afghan Civil War (1992–1996) 1992-1996 TalibanandAl-Qaeda Afghanistan
First Chechen War 1994-2017 Mujahideen in Chechnya Russia
Afghan Civil War (1996–2001) 1996-2001 TalibanandAl-Qaeda Afghanistan
Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen 1998-present Al Qaeda Yemen
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) 2001-2021 Taliban,Al-Qaeda,andIslamic State – Khorasan Province Afghanistan
Insurgency in the Maghreb 2002-present Al QaedaandIslamic State Algeria,Mali,Niger,Mauritania,Tunisia,Morocco,andLibya
Iraqi insurgency 2003-present Al QaedaandIslamic State Iraq
Insurgency in the North Caucasus 2009-2017 Caucasus EmirateandIslamic State Russia
Boko Haram insurgency 2009-present Boko Haram Nigeria,Cameroon,Niger,andChad
Islamist insurgency in the Sahel 2011-present Al QaedaandIslamic State – Sahel Province Mali,Burkina Faso,Niger,Nigeria,Cameroon,Chad,Benin,Togo,Ghana,andIvory Coast
Syrian Civil War 2011-present Al QaedaandIslamic State Syria
War against the Islamic State 2014-present Islamic State
Islamic State–Taliban conflict 2015-present TalibanandIslamic State Afghanistan

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Gilles Kepel used the variantsjihadist-salafist(p. 220),jihadism-salafism(p. 276),salafist-jihadism(p. 403) in his bookJihad: The Trail of Political Islam(Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002)
  2. ^Use of "jihadism" has been criticized by at least one academic (Brachman): "'Jihadism' is a clumsy and controversial term. It refers to the peripheral current of extremist Islamic thought whose adherents demand the use of violence in order to oust non-Islamic influence from traditionally Muslim lands en route to establishing true Islamic governance in accordance with Sharia, or God's law. The expression's most significant limitation is that it contains the word Jihad, which is an important religious concept in Islam. For much of the Islamic world, Jihad simply refers to the internal spiritual campaign that one wages with oneself."[40]
  3. ^For example: "The battle has drawn Shiite militias from Lebanon, Iraq and Afghanistan on the side of Assad, even as Sunni would-be jihadists from around the world have filled the ranks of the many Islamist groups fighting his rule, including the Islamic State extremist group."[91]
  4. ^The Iranian government has drawn from Afghan refugees living in Iran and the number of Afghans fighting in Syria on behalf of the Assad regime has been estimated at "between 10,000 and 12,000".[92]

References

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  1. ^Ahmad, Aisha (2024),"Jihadist Governance in Civil Wars",Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies,doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.763,ISBN978-0-19-084662-6
  2. ^abcMendelsohn, Barak (21 March 2024). Cruickshank, Paul; Hummel, Kristina; Morgan, Caroline (eds.)."On the Horizon: The Future of the Jihadi Movement"(PDF).CTC Sentinel.17(3).West Point, New York:Combating Terrorism Center:1–10.Archived(PDF)from the original on 25 March 2024.Retrieved3 April2024.
  3. ^Sedgwick, Mark (2015)."Jihadism, Narrow and Wide: The Dangers of Loose Use of an Important Term".Perspectives on Terrorism.9(2): 34–41.ISSN2334-3745.JSTOR26297358.
  4. ^Ashour, Omar (July 2011)."Post-Jihadism: Libya and the Global Transformations of Armed Islamist Movements".Terrorism and Political Violence.23(3): 377–397.doi:10.1080/09546553.2011.560218.ISSN0954-6553.
  5. ^abcAtiyas-Lvovsky, Lorena; Azani, Eitan; Barak, Michael; Moghadam, Assaf (20 September 2023). Cruickshank, Paul; Hummel, Kristina; Morgan, Caroline (eds.)."CTC-ICT Focus on Israel: In Word and Deed? Global Jihad and the Threat to Israel and the Jewish Community"(PDF).CTC Sentinel.16(9).West Point, New York:Combating Terrorism Center:1–12.Archived(PDF)from the original on 20 September 2023.Retrieved1 October2023.
  6. ^abcdPoljarevic, Emin (2021). "Theology of Violence-oriented Takfirism as a Political Theory: The Case of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS)". InCusack, Carole M.;Upal, M. Afzal(eds.).Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements.Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21.LeidenandBoston:Brill Publishers.pp. 485–512.doi:10.1163/9789004435544_026.ISBN978-90-04-43554-4.ISSN1874-6691.
  7. ^abBadara, Mohamed; Nagata, Masaki (November 2017)."Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective".Arab Law Quarterly.31(4).Leiden:Brill Publishers:305–335.doi:10.1163/15730255-12314024.ISSN1573-0255.
  8. ^abcdefghCook, David(2015) [2005]."Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory".Understanding Jihad(2nd ed.).Berkeley:University of California Press.pp. 93–127.ISBN9780520287327.JSTOR10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10.LCCN2015010201.
  9. ^[5][6][7][8]
  10. ^abThe End of the Jihad State.
  11. ^abMohanty, Nirode (15 September 2018).Jihadism: Past and Present - Nirode Mohanty - Google Books.Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN9781498575973.Retrieved1 October2022.
  12. ^Batran, Aziz (1989). "The nineteenth-century Islamic revolutions in West Africa".General History of Africa: Volume 6.UNESCO Publishing.
  13. ^Ibrahim, Ibrahim Yahaya (28 July 2017).The Wave of Jihadist Insurgency in West Africa: Global Ideology, Local Context, Individual Motivations(Report). Paris: OECD.
  14. ^abAydınlı, Ersel (2018) [2016]."The Jihadists after 9/11".Violent Non-State Actors: From Anarchists to Jihadists.Routledge Studies on Challenges, Crises, and Dissent in World Politics (1st ed.).LondonandNew York:Routledge.pp. 110–149.ISBN978-1-315-56139-4.LCCN2015050373.
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Literature

edit
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edit
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