Wikipedia

Johns Hopkins

This article is about the philanthropist. For institutions named after him, seeJohns Hopkins UniversityandJohns Hopkins Hospital.
Not to be confused with several people namedJohn Hopkins.

Johns Hopkins(May 19, 1795 – December 24, 1873) was an American merchant, investor, and philanthropist. Born on a plantation, he left his home to start a career at the age of 17, and settled inBaltimore,Maryland,where he remained for most of his life.

Johns Hopkins
Portrait of Johns Hopkins
Hopkins,c. 1871
Born(1795-05-19)May 19, 1795
Gambrills, Maryland,U.S.
DiedDecember 24, 1873(1873-12-24)(aged 78)
Baltimore,Maryland,U.S.
Burial placeGreen Mount Cemetery
MonumentsJohns Hopkins Monument atJohns Hopkins University
EducationFree School of Anne Arundel County
Occupation(s)Entrepreneur, investor, philanthropist
RelativesGerard T. Hopkins(uncle)
Signature

Hopkins invested heavily in theBaltimore and Ohio Railroad(B&O), which eventually led to his appointment as finance director of the company. He was also president of Baltimore-based Merchants' National Bank.[a]Hopkins was a staunch supporter ofAbraham Lincolnand theUnion,often using his Maryland residence as a gathering place for Union strategists. He was aQuakerand supporter of theabolitionistcause.

Hopkins was a philanthropist his whole life. His philanthropic giving increased significantly after theCivil War.His concern for the poor and newly-freed slave populations drove him to create free medical facilities, orphanages, asylums, and schools to help alleviate the impoverished conditions for all, regardless of race, sex, age, or religion, but especially focused on the young. Following his death, hisbequestsfounded numerous institutions bearing his name, most notablyJohns Hopkins Hospitaland theJohns Hopkins Universitysystem, including its academic divisions:Johns Hopkins School of Nursing,Johns Hopkins School of Medicine,Johns HopkinsCarey Business School,Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health,and Johns HopkinsSchool of Advanced International Studies.At the time, it was the largest philanthropic bequest ever made to an American educational institution.

Early life and education

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Johns Hopkins was born on May 19, 1795, at his family's home ofWhite's Hall,a 500-acre (200 ha) tobacco plantation inAnne Arundel County, Maryland.[1]His first name was inherited from his grandfather Johns Hopkins, who received his first name from his mother Margaret Johns.[2][3][4][5]He was one of eleven children born to Samuel Hopkins ofCrofton, Maryland,and Hannah Janney, ofLoudoun County, Virginia.[2]

The Hopkins family were ofEnglishdescent andQuakers.They emancipated their enslaved laborers in 1778 in accordance with their Quaker meeting's decree, which called for freeing the able-bodied and caring for the others, who would remain at the plantation and provide labor as they could.[6]The second eldest of eleven children, Hopkins was required to work on the farm alongside his siblings and indentured and free Black laborers. From 1806 to 1809, he likely attended TheFree School of Anne Arundel County,which was located in modern-dayDavidsonville, Maryland.[citation needed]

In 1812, at the age of 17, Hopkins left the plantation to work in his uncleGerard T. Hopkins's Baltimore wholesale grocery business. Gerard T. Hopkins was an established merchant and clerk of the Baltimore Yearly Meeting of Friends. While living with his uncle's family, Johns and his cousin, Elizabeth, fell in love; however, the Quaker taboo against the marriage of first cousins was especially strong, and neither Johns nor Elizabeth ever married.[1]

As he became able, Hopkins provided for his extended family, both during his life and posthumously through his will. He bequeathed a home for Elizabeth, where she lived until her death in 1889. He also gave $5,000 and a house to his longest-serving servant, James Jones, and $3,000 to two other servants.[citation needed]

Whiteshall Plantation is located in today'sCrofton, Maryland.Its home, since modified, is on Johns Hopkins Road, adjacent to Riedel Road. The property is surrounded by Walden Golf Course and bears a historic marker.[citation needed]

Career

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Share of theBaltimore and Ohio Railroad,issued July 26, 1856 and signed by Johns Hopkins as the company'spro tempresident

Hopkins' early experiences and successes in business came when he was put in charge of the store while his uncle was away during theWar of 1812.After seven years with his uncle, Hopkins went into business together with Benjamin Moore, a fellowQuaker.The business partnership was later dissolved with Moore alleging Hopkins' penchant forcapital accumulationas the cause for the divide.[1]

After Moore's withdrawal, Hopkins partnered with three of his brothers and established Hopkins & Brothers Wholesalers in 1819.[7]The company prospered by selling various wares in theShenandoah ValleyfromConestoga wagons,sometimes in exchange for corn whiskey, which was then sold in Baltimore as "Hopkins' Best". The bulk of Hopkins's fortune, however, was made by his judicious investments in myriad ventures, most notably theBaltimore and Ohio Railroad(B&O), of which he became a director in 1847 and chairman of the Finance Committee in 1855. He was also President of Merchants' Bank as well as director of a number of other organizations.[8]After a successful career, Hopkins was able to retire at the age of 52 in 1847.[7]

A charitable individual, Hopkins put up his own money more than once to not only aid Baltimore City during times of financial crises but also to twice bail the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad company out of debt, in 1857 and 1873.[9]

In 1996, Johns Hopkins ranked 69th in "The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates: A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present".[10][11]

Civil War

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One of the first campaigns of theAmerican Civil Warwas planned at Hopkins' summer estate,Clifton,where he had also entertained a number of foreign dignitaries, including the futureKing Edward VII.[1]Hopkins was a strong supporter of the Union, unlike some Marylanders, who sympathized with and often supported the South and theConfederacy.[12]During the Civil War, Clifton became a frequent meeting place for local Union sympathizers, and federal officials.

Hopkins' support ofAbraham Lincolnalso often put him at odds with some of Maryland's most prominent people, including Supreme Court JusticeRoger B. Taneywho continually opposed Lincoln's presidential decisions such aslimiting habeas corpusand stationingUnion Armytroops in Maryland. In 1862, Hopkins wrote a letter to Lincoln requesting that he not heed the detractors' calls and continue to keep soldiers stationed in Maryland. Hopkins also pledged financial and logistic support to Lincoln, in particular the free use of the B&O railway system.[13][14]

Abolitionism

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Johns Hopkins Monument atJohns Hopkins UniversityinBaltimore

In 2020,Johns Hopkins Universityresearchers discovered that Johns Hopkins may have owned or employed enslaved people who worked in his home and on his country estate, citing census records from 1840 and 1850.[15][16]

Hopkins' reputation as an abolitionist is currently disputed. In an email sent from Johns Hopkins University to all employees on December 9, 2020, the university wrote that, "The current research done byMartha S. Jonesand Allison Seyler finds no evidence to substantiate the description of Johns Hopkins as an abolitionist, and they have explored and brought to light a number of other relevant materials. They have been unable to document the story of Johns Hopkins' parents freeing enslaved people in 1807, but they have found a partial freeing of enslaved people in 1778 by Johns Hopkins' grandfather, and also continued slaveholding and transactions involving enslaved persons for decades thereafter. They have looked more closely at an 1838 letter from the Hopkins Brothers (a firm in which Johns Hopkins was a principal) in which an enslaved person is accepted as collateral for a debt owed, and recently located an additional obituary in which Johns Hopkins is described as holding antislavery political views (consistent with the letter conveying his established support for President Lincoln and the Union) and as purchasing an enslaved person for the purpose of securing his eventual freedom. Still other documents contain laudatory comments by Johns Hopkins' contemporaries, including prominent Black leaders, praising his visionary philanthropic support for the establishment of an orphanage for Black children. "[17]

A second group of scholars disputes the university's December 2020 declarations. In a pre-print paper published by the Open Science Framework, these scholars argue that Johns Hopkins's parents and grandparents were devout Quakers who liberated the family's enslaved laborers prior to 1800, that Johns Hopkins was an emancipationist who supported the movement to end slavery within the limits of the laws governing Maryland, and that the available documentation, including relevant tax records these researchers have uncovered, does not support the university's claim that Johns Hopkins was a slaveholder.[18]

Before the discovery of possible slaveholding or employment, Johns Hopkins had been described as being an "abolitionist before the word was even invented", having been represented as such both prior to the Civil War period, as well as during the Civil War and Reconstruction Era.[8][19][20]Prior to the Civil War, Johns Hopkins worked closely with two of America's most famous abolitionists,Myrtilla Miner[21]andHenry Ward Beecher.[21]During the Civil War, Johns Hopkins, being a staunch supporter of Lincoln and the Union, was instrumental in bringing fruition to Lincoln's emancipatory vision.[22]

After the Civil War and duringReconstruction,Johns Hopkins's stance on abolitionism infuriated many prominent people in Baltimore.[23][24]During Reconstruction and up to his death[25]his abolitionism was expressed in the documents founding the Johns Hopkins Institutions and reported in newspaper articles before, during, and after the founding of these institutions. Before the war, there was significant written opposition to his support for Myrtilla Miner's founding of a school for African American females (now theUniversity of the District of Columbia).[26]In a letter to the editor, one subscriber to the widely circulatedDe Bow's Reviewwrote:

"It now seems that the Abolitionists not only propose to colonize Virginia from their own numbers, but that they are about to make the District of Columbia, in the midst of the slave region, and once under the jurisdiction of a slave State, the centre of an education movement, which shall embrace the free negroes of the whole North. A vast negro boarding school or college is proposed to be established in the City of Washington, the site for which has been purchased. The proposed edifice is designed to accommodate 150 scholars, and to furnish homes for the teachers and pupils from a distance... The names of the Trustees ought to be mentioned particularly, as some of them are Southern men, and it might interest the South to know who they are..."[26]

Similarly, opposition (and some support) was expressed during Reconstruction, such as in 1867, the same year he filed papers incorporating the Johns Hopkins Institutions, when he attempted unsuccessfully to stop the convening of the Maryland Constitutional Convention where the Democratic Party came into power and where a newstate Constitution,the Constitution still in effect, was voted to replace the 1864 Constitution of the Republicans previously in power.[24]

Apparent also in the literature of the times was opposition, and support for, the various other ways he expressed opposition to the racial practices that were beginning to emerge, and re-emerge as well, in the city of Baltimore, the state of Maryland, the nation, and in the posthumously constructed and founded institutions that would carry his name.[27]ABaltimore Americanjournalist praised Hopkins for founding three institutions, a university, a hospital, and an orphan asylum, specifically for colored children, adding that Hopkins was a "man (beyond his times) who knew no race" citing his provisions for both blacks and whites in the plans for his hospital. The reporter also pointed to similarities betweenBenjamin Franklin's and Johns Hopkins's views on hospital care and construction, such as their shared interest in free hospitals and the availability of emergency services without prejudice. This article, first published in 1870, also accompanied Hopkins's obituary in theBaltimore Americanas a tribute in 1873. Cited in many of the newspaper articles on him during his lifetime and immediately after his death were his provisions of scholarships for the poor, and quality health services for the under-served without regard to their age, sex, or color, the colored children asylum and other orphanages, and the mentally ill and convalescents.

A biography,Johns Hopkins: A Silhouette,was written by Hopkins' grandniece, Helen Hopkins Thom, and published in 1929 byJohns Hopkins University Press.This biography was one source for the story that Hopkins was an abolitionist.

Philanthropy

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See also:History of the Johns Hopkins University
Interior ofJohns Hopkins University's library

Hopkins lived his entire adult life inBaltimoreand made many friends among the city's social elite, many of themQuakers.One of these friends wasGeorge Peabody(b. 1795), who in 1857 founded thePeabody Institutein Baltimore. Examples of Hopkins' public giving were evident in Baltimore with public buildings, housing, free libraries, schools, and foundations constructed from his philanthropic giving. On the advice of Peabody, some believe, Hopkins determined to use his great wealth for the public good.

The Civil War andyellow feverandcholeraepidemics took a great toll on Baltimore. In the summer of 1832 alone, the yellow fever and cholera epidemics killed 853 in Baltimore. Hopkins was keenly aware of the city's need for medical facilities in light of the medical advances made during the Civil War. In 1870, he made a will setting aside $7 million, (~$149 million in 2023) mostly in B&O stock, for the incorporation of a free hospital and affiliated medical and nurses' training colleges, an orphanage for Black children, and a university in Baltimore. The hospital and orphan asylum were overseen by a 12-member hospital board of trustees, and the university by a 12-member university board of trustees. Many board members were on both boards. In accordance with Hopkins' will, theJohns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum[28]was founded in 1875;Johns Hopkins Universitywas founded in 1876; theJohns Hopkins Press,the longest continuously operating academic press in the U.S., was founded in 1878;Johns Hopkins HospitalandJohns Hopkins School of Nursingwere founded in 1889; theJohns Hopkins University School of Medicinewas founded in 1893; and theJohns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Healthwas founded in 1916.[citation needed]

Hopkins' views on his bequests, and on the duties and responsibilities of the two boards of trustees, especially the hospital board of trustees led by his friend and fellowQuakerFrancis King, were formally stated primarily in four documents, the incorporation papers filed in 1867, his instruction letter to the hospital trustees dated March 12, 1873, his will, which was quoted extensively in hisBaltimore Sunobituary,[29]and in his will's twocodicils,one dated 1870 and a second dated 1873.[30]

In these documents, Hopkins made provisions for scholarships to be provided for poor youths in the states where he had made his wealth and assistance to orphanages other than the one established for African American children, to members of his family, to those he employed, his cousin Elizabeth, to other institutions for the care and education of youths regardless of color, and the care of the elderly and the ill, including the mentally ill and convalescents.

John Rudolph Niernsee,one of the most notable architects of the time, designed the orphan asylum and helped to design theJohns Hopkins Hospital.The original site for Johns Hopkins University had been personally selected by Hopkins. According to his will, it was to be located at his summer estate, Clifton. However, a decision was made not to found the university there. The property, now owned by the city of Baltimore, is the site of a golf course and a park namedClifton Park.While Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum was founded by the hospital trustees, the other institutions that carry the name of Johns Hopkins were founded under the administration ofDaniel Coit Gilman,the first president ofJohns Hopkins UniversityandJohns Hopkins Hospital,and Gilman's successors.

Colored Children Orphan Asylum

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As stipulated in Hopkins's instruction letter, the Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum (JHCCOA)[31]was founded first, in 1875, a year before Gilman's inauguration. The construction of the asylum, including its educational and living facilities, was praised byThe Nationand theBaltimore American.TheBaltimore Americanreported wrote that the orphan asylum was a place where "nothing was wanting that could benefit science and humanity". As was done for other Johns Hopkins institutions, it was planned after visits and correspondence with similar institutions in Europe and the U.S.

The Johns Hopkins Orphan Asylum opened with 24 boys and girls. Under Gilman and his successors, the orphanage was later changed to serve as an orphanage and training school for Black female orphans principally as domestic workers and as anorthopiedicconvalescent home and school for "colored crippled" children and orphans. The asylum was eventually closed in 1924 nearly 50 years after it opened.

Hospital, university, press, and schools of nursing and medicine

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In accordance with Hopkins' March 1873 instruction letter, theschool of nursingwas founded alongside the hospital in 1889 by the hospital board of trustees in consultation withFlorence Nightingale.Both the nursing school and the hospital were founded over a decade after the founding of the orphan asylum in 1875 and the university in 1876. Hopkins's instruction letter explicitly stated his vision for the hospital; first, to provide assistance to the poor of "all races", no matter the indigent patient's "age, sex or color"; second, that wealthier patients would pay for services and thereby subsidize the care provided to the indigent; third, that the hospital would be the administrative unit for the orphan asylum for African American children, which was to receive $25,000 in annual support out of the hospital's half of the endowment; and fourth, that the hospital and orphan asylum should serve 400 patients and 400 children respectively; fifth, that the hospital should be part of the university, and, sixth, that religion but not sectarianism should be an influence in the hospital.

By the end of Gilman's presidency, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins Press, Johns Hopkins Hospital and Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, and Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, and Johns Hopkins Colored Children Orphan Asylum had been founded; the latter by the trustees, and the others in the order listed under the Gilman administration. "Sex" and "color" were major issues in the early history of the Johns Hopkins Institutions. The founding of the school of nursing is usually linked to Johns Hopkins's statements in his March 1873 instruction letter to the trustees that: "I desire you to establish, in connection with the hospital, a training school for female nurses. This provision will secure the services of women competent to care for those sick in the hospital wards, and will enable you to benefit the whole community by supplying it with a class of trained and experienced nurses".

Legacy

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Hopkins' gravestone (center) inGreen Mount Cemetery

Hopkins died on December 24, 1873, inBaltimore.[5]

Following Hopkins's death,The Baltimore Sunpublished a lengthy obituary that reported, "In the death of Johns Hopkins a career has been closed which affords a rare example of successful energy in individual accumulations, and of practical beneficence in devoting the gains thus acquired to the public." Hopkins' contribution to the founding ofJohns Hopkins Universitybecome his greatest legacy and was the largest philanthropic bequest ever made to a U.S. educational institution.

Hopkins'Quakerfaith and early life experiences, including the 1778 emancipation, had a lasting influence on him throughout his life.[32]Beginning early in his life, Hopkins looked upon his wealth as a trust to benefit future generations. He told his gardener that, "Like the man in the parable, I have had many talents given to me and I feel they are in trust. I shall not bury them but give them to the lads who long for a wider education". His philosophy quietly anticipatedAndrew Carnegie's much-publicizedGospel of Wealthby more than 25 years.[1]

In 1973, Johns Hopkins was cited prominently in thePulitzer Prize-winning bookThe Americans: The Democratic ExperiencebyDaniel Boorstin,theLibrarian of Congressfrom 1975 to 1987. From November 14, 1975 to September 6, 1976, a portrait of Hopkins was displayed at theNational Portrait Galleryin an exhibit on the democratization of America based on Boorstin's book. In 1989, theUnited States Postal Serviceissued a $1 postage stamp in Hopkins' honor, as part of theGreat Americans series.[33]

Notes

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  1. ^SeeMerchants' National Bank Building (1895), Baltimore

References

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  1. ^abcdeKathryn A. Jacob (January 1974)."Mr. Johns Hopkins".The Johns Hopkins Magazine.Vol. 25, no. 1. The Johns Hopkins University. pp. 13–17. Archived fromthe originalon August 25, 2004.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.
  2. ^abJacob, Kathryn A. "Mr. Johns Hopkins." Mr. Johns Hopkins. Johns Hopkins University, n.d. Web. October 7, 2013. <"Mr. Johns Hopkins".Archived fromthe originalon October 17, 2015.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.>.
  3. ^"Reexamining the history of our founder".December 9, 2020. Archived fromthe originalon March 24, 2021.RetrievedDecember 9,2020.
  4. ^Jones, Martha S. (December 9, 2020)."The founder of Johns Hopkins owned enslaved people. Our university must face a reckoning".The Washington Post.RetrievedDecember 13,2020.
  5. ^ab"Death of Johns Hopkins",The Baltimore Sun,December 25, 1873
  6. ^Hopkins Thom, Helen (1929),Johns Hopkins: A Silhouette,Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,retrievedOctober 4,2009— the first and only book-length biography on Johns Hopkins. Used as source by Jacob cited above, Findalibrary.
  7. ^ab"Hopkins, Johns." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2012. Credo Reference. Web. October 7, 2013.
  8. ^ab"If He Could See Us Now: Mr. Johns Hopkins' Legacy Strong University, hospital benefactor turned 200 on May 19, 1995, Mike Field, Staff Writer,The Gazette,The Newspaper of the Johns Hopkins University ".Jhu.edu.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.
  9. ^"Johns Hopkins".Baltimore Benevolence: A Record of Nineteenth Century Philanthropy & Humane Giving.Maryland State Archives.2001.RetrievedJuly 27,2023.
  10. ^"The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates – A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present".Adherents.com. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  11. ^Klepper, Michael; Gunther, Michael (1996),The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates—A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present,Secaucus, New Jersey:Carol Publishing Group, p.xiii,ISBN978-0-8065-1800-8,OCLC33818143
  12. ^[1][permanent dead link]Baltimore and the Nineteenth of April 1861: A Study of the Waris the memoir ofGeorge William Brownan ex-mayor of Baltimore city.
  13. ^"The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress".Library of Congress.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.
  14. ^"Border Town,Style Magazine,2005 ".Baltimorestyle.com. Archived fromthe originalon November 3, 2009.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.
  15. ^"Contrary to century-old family lore, Johns Hopkins was an enslaver".The Johns Hopkins News-Letter.RetrievedDecember 11,2020.
  16. ^"Hopkins researchers discover namesake benefactor owned slaves".wbal.com.RetrievedDecember 9,2020.
  17. ^Phil Helsel (December 9, 2020)."Johns Hopkins, long believed by university to be abolitionist, owned slaves, records show".NBC News.
  18. ^Van Morgan, Sydney; Becker, Stan; Hopkins, Samuel B.; Papenfuse, Edward C. (May 18, 2021)."Johns Hopkins and Slavery".Open Science Framework.Center for Open Science.doi:10.31219/osf.io/zra5f.
  19. ^[2]The Racial Record of Johns Hopkins University in theJournal of Blacks in Higher Education,No. 25, Autumn, 1999, pp. 42–43 in JSTOR
  20. ^[3]See Jacob's 1974 article and Thom's 1929 biography].
  21. ^ab"Myrtilla Miner, 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History".Britannica.com.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.
  22. ^"Johns Hopkins' letter to Lincoln".Library of Congress.RetrievedOctober 4,2009.
  23. ^The Baltimore Sunarticles, which can be found online in the Maryland Archives, and William Starr Myers' book on "self-reconstruction" in Maryland,
  24. ^abWilliam Starr Myers(1857).The Self-Reconstruction of Maryland, 1864–1867.Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science,Under the Direction of the Departments of History, Political Economy, and Political Science.[clarification needed]
  25. ^"The Johns Hopkins University – Chronology".Archived fromthe originalon April 15, 2013.RetrievedApril 17,2013.Documents cited in "Chronology", Johns Hopkins University's website. See also "The History of African Americans @ Johns Hopkins University", in particular its chronology and the paper by Danton Rodriguez, "The Racial Record of Johns Hopkins University in the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 25, Autumn, 1999, pp. 42–43 inJSTOR
  26. ^abDeBow's Review,Volume 22.
  27. ^[4]ArchivedDecember 1, 2016, at theWayback Machine"The History of African Americans @ Johns Hopkins University"; see in particular its chronology and the paper by Danton Rodriguez and the chronology on Johns Hopkins University's website cited immediately above. Wolff in a recent article on Baltimore and education during Reconstruction stated that what he saw emerging, during Reconstruction was "slavery under a different name", the disenfranchisement and other practices proposed before the war being carried out after the Civil War.
  28. ^"The Institutional Records of the Johns Hopkins Hospital Colored Orphan Asylum".Archived fromthe originalon September 1, 2006.RetrievedOctober 28,2006.Johns Hopkins University's Website, The Institutional Records of The Johns Hopkins Hospital Colored Orphan Asylum
  29. ^[5]Obituary,The Baltimore Sun,December 25, 1873, in Johns Hopkins Gazette, January 4, 1999, v. 28, no. 16
  30. ^[6]The Chronicles of Baltimore: Being a Complete History of "Baltimore Town and Baltimore City from the Earliest Period to the Present Timepublished in 1874, John Thomas Scharf cited the 1873 instruction letter to the hospital trustees and a city council resolution thanking Johns Hopkins for his philanthropy. Thom's biography and New York and Maryland newspapers were sources that published parts or all of this letter.
  31. ^[7]ArchivedJuly 21, 2006, at theWayback MachineJohns Hopkins Dream for a Model of its Kind: The JHH Colored Orphans Asylum, abstract, 2000 Conference International Society for the History of Medicine By Dr. P. Reynolds
  32. ^"Merchants & Miners Transportation Co".Archived fromthe originalon April 20, 2008.RetrievedMay 20,2008."Merchants & Miners Transportation Co.",[8]"Troopships of World War II"
  33. ^Scott catalog# 2194A.
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