Wikipedia

Jupiter

This article is about the planet. For the Roman god, seeJupiter (god).For other uses, seeJupiter (disambiguation).

Jupiteris the fifthplanetfrom theSunand thelargest in the Solar System.Agas giant,Jupiter's massis more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in theSolar Systemcombined and slightly less than one one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Jupiter orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20AU(778.5Gm) with anorbital periodof11.86years.It is thethird brightest natural objectin theEarth's night sky after theMoonandVenusand has been observed sinceprehistoric times.Its name derives fromJupiter,the chief deity ofancient Roman religion.

Jupiter
see caption
Jupiter captured byNew Horizonsspace probe. The small spot on top of Jupiter is the shadow cast by its moonGanymede.
Designations
Pronunciation/ˈdʒuːpɪtər/ⓘ[1]
Named after
Jupiter
AdjectivesJovian/ˈdʒoʊviən/
Symbol♃
Orbital characteristics[2]
EpochJ2000
Aphelion5.4570AU(816.363 millionkm)
Perihelion4.9506 AU (740.595 million km)
5.2038 AU (778.479 million km)
Eccentricity0.0489
398.88 d
13.07 km/s (8.12 mi/s)
20.020°[4]
Inclination
100.464°
21 January 2023[6]
273.867°[4]
Knownsatellites95(as of 2023)[7]
Physical characteristics[2][8][9]
69,911 km (43,441 mi)[a]
10.973 of Earth's
71,492 km (44,423 mi)[a]
11.209R🜨(of Earth's)
0.10045R☉(of Sun's)
Polarradius
66,854 km (41,541 mi)[a]
10.517 of Earth's
Flattening0.06487
6.1469×1010km2(2.3733×1010sq mi)
120.4 of Earth's
Volume1.4313×1015km3(3.434×1014cu mi)[a]
1,321 of Earth's
Mass1.8982×1027kg (4.1848×1027lb)
  • 317.8 of Earth's
  • 1/1047 of Sun's[10]
1.326g/cm3(0.0479lb/cu in)[b]
Equatorialsurface gravity
24.79m/s2(81.3ft/s2)[a]
2.528g0
0.2756±0.0006[11]
Equatorialescape velocity
59.5 km/s (37.0 mi/s)[a]
9.9258 h(9 h 55 m 33 s)[3]
9.9250 hours (9 h 55 m 30 s)
Equatorial rotation velocity
12.6 km/s (7.8 mi/s; 45,000 km/h)
3.13° (to orbit)
North poleright ascension
268.057°;17h52m14s
North poledeclination
64.495°
0.503 (Bond)[12]
0.538 (geometric)[13]
Temperature88 K (−185 °C) (blackbody temperature)
Surfacetemp. min mean max
1bar 165K
0.1 bar 78 K 128 K
−2.94[14]to −1.66[14]
−9.4[15]
29.8 "to 50.1"
Atmosphere[2]
Surfacepressure
200–600 kPa (30–90 psi)
(opaque cloud deck)[16]
27 km (17 mi)
Composition by volume

Jupiter was the first planet to form, and its inward migration during the primordial Solar System impacted much of the formation history of the other planets.Hydrogenconstitutes 90% of Jupiter's volume, followed byhelium,which forms 25% of its mass and 10% of its volume. The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. Its internal structure is believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluidmetallic hydrogenand a diffuse inner core of denser material. Because of its rapid rotation rate of one rotation per ten hours, Jupiter's shape is anoblate spheroid;it possesses a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. The most obvious result of this is theGreat Red Spot,a giant storm that has been recorded since at least 1831.

Jupiter is surrounded by a faintplanetary ringsystem and has a powerfulmagnetosphere,the second largest contiguous structure in the Solar System (after theheliosphere). Jupiter forms asystem of 95 known moonsand probably many more, including thefour large moonsdiscovered byGalileo Galileiin 1610:Io,Europa,Ganymede,andCallisto.Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger than the planetMercury.Callisto is the second largest; Io and Europa are approximately the size of Earth's Moon.

Since 1973, Jupiter has beenvisited byninerobotic probes:sevenflybysand two dedicated orbiters, withone more en routeandone awaiting launch.

Name and symbol

In both the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divinepantheon:Zeusto the Greeks andJupiterto the Romans.[17]TheInternational Astronomical Unionformally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976, and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants.[18]Theplanetary symbolfor Jupiter,,descends from a Greekzetawith ahorizontal stroke,⟨Ƶ⟩,as an abbreviation forZeus.[19][20]

In Latin,Iovisis thegenitive caseofIuppiter,i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology ofZeus('sky father'). The English equivalent,Jove,is only known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century.[21]

Jovianis theadjectivalform of Jupiter. The older adjectival formjovial,employed by astrologers in theMiddle Ages,has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence inastrology.[22]

The original Greek deityZeussupplies the rootzeno-,which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such aszenographic.[c]

Formation and migration

Main article:Grand tack hypothesis
See also:Formation and evolution of the Solar System

Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth.[23]Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond thesnow line:a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold forvolatilessuch as water to condense into solids.[24]The planet began as a solid core, which then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. As a consequence, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed.[25]During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of the Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents.[23]When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula.[23]Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4million years.[23]Since Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium) it has been suggested that theSolar Systemmight have been early inits formationasystem of multiple protostars,which are quite common, with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar. But the Solar System never developed into a system of multiple stars and Jupiter today does not qualify as aprotostarorbrown dwarfsince it does not have enough mass to fuse hydrogen.[26][27][28]

According to the "grand tack hypothesis",Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5AU(520 millionkm;330 millionmi) from the Sun. As the young planetaccretedmass, interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun andorbital resonanceswithSaturncaused it to migrate inward.[24][29]This upset the orbits of severalsuper-Earthsorbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively.[30]Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter, until the two planets became captured in a 3:2mean motion resonanceat approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun.[31]This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations.[30]All of this happened over a period of 3–6million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years.[29][32]Jupiter's migration from the inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble.[33]

There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition.[34]It is likely that Jupiter would have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through thesolar nebula.[35]Some competing models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present day planet.[25]Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much farther out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).[36][37]

According to theNice model,infall of proto-Kuiper beltobjects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering theLate Heavy Bombardment.[38]

Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside themolecular nitrogen(N2)snow line,which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5 billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argonsnow line,which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi).[39][40]Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location,[36][37]during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards.[36]

Physical characteristics

Jupiter is agas giant,meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium. These materials are classified asgassesin planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at itsequator,giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth.[2][41]Its average density, 1.326 g/cm3,[d]is lower than those of the fourterrestrial planets.[43][44]

Composition

By mass,Jupiter's atmosphereis approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium, though, because helium atoms are more massive than hydrogen molecules, Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium by volume.[45]The atmosphere also contains trace amounts ofmethane,water vapour,ammonia,andsilicon-based compounds, as well as fractional amounts ofcarbon,ethane,hydrogen sulfide,neon,oxygen,phosphine,andsulfur.[46]The outermost layer of the atmosphere containscrystalsof frozen ammonia.[47]Throughinfraredandultravioletmeasurements, trace amounts ofbenzeneand otherhydrocarbonshave also been found.[48]The interior of Jupiter contains denser materials—by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements.[49][50]

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordialsolar nebula.[51]Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun.[52]Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due toprecipitationof these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's interior.[53][54]

Based onspectroscopy,Saturnis thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planetsUranusandNeptunehave relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the nextmost common elements,including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.[55]These planets are known asice giantsbecause during their formation these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ices; however, they probably contain little ice today.[56]

Size and mass

Main article:Jupiter mass
Size of Earth compared to Jupiter in true colours

Jupiter's mass is 318 times that of Earth;[2]2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. It is so massive that itsbarycentrewith the Sun lies above theSun's surfaceat 1.068solar radiifrom the Sun's centre.[57][58]: 6 Jupiter's radius is about one tenth the radius of the Sun,[59]and its mass is one thousandth themass of the Sun,as the densities of the two bodies are similar.[60]A "Jupiter mass"(MJorMJup) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularlyextrasolar planetsandbrown dwarfs.For example, the extrasolar planetHD 209458 bhas a mass of0.69MJ,while the brown dwarfGliese 229 bhas a mass of60.4MJ.[61][62]

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume woulddecreasedespite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, theradiuswould not change appreciably.[63]As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve.[64]The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciablestellar ignitionwas achieved.[65]Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive tofuse hydrogenand become astar,[66]its diameter is sufficient as the smallestred dwarfmay be only slightly larger in radius than Saturn.[67]

Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to theKelvin–Helmholtz mechanismwithin its contracting interior.[68]: 30 [69]This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in) per year.[70][71]At the time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.[72]

Internal structure

Diagram of Jupiter with its interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons

Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a densecore,a surrounding layer of fluidmetallic hydrogen(with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet,[73]and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily ofmolecular hydrogen.[71]Alternatively, if the planet collapsed directly from the gaseousprotoplanetary disk,it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from theJunomissionshowed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth.[74][75][76][77][78]This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula.[79]Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core.[80][81]

Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen'scritical pressureof 1.3MPaandcritical temperatureof 33K(−240.2°C;−400.3°F).[82]In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in asupercritical fluidstate. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids.[68]: 22 [83][84][85]Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.[86][87]

Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.[53][88]Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds).[89]Rainfalls ofdiamondshave been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn[90]and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune.[91]

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection.[54]At a surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is 1bar(0.10MPa), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa.[92]

Atmosphere

Main article:Atmosphere of Jupiter
Timelapse of Jupiter's cloud system moving over the course of one month (photographed duringVoyager 1flyby in 1979)

The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia.[93]Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 km (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers.[92]

Cloud layers

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may containammonium hydrosulfideas well.[94]The clouds are located in thetropopauselayer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-huedzonesand darkerbelts.The interactions of these conflictingcirculationpatterns cause storms andturbulence.Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common inzonal jet streams.[95]The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them.[58]: 6 

View of Jupiter's south pole
Enhanced colour view of Jupiter's southern storms

The cloud layer is about 50 km (31 mi) deep and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin, clearer region on top and a thicker, lower deck. There may be a thin layer ofwaterclouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes oflightningdetected in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[96]These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth.[97]The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.[98]The Juno mission revealed the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere.[99]These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere.[100]Upper-atmospheric lightninghas been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to the hydrogen.[101][102]

The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.[68]: 39 [103]These colourful compounds, known aschromophores,mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when risingconvection cellsform crystallising ammonia that hides the chromophores from view.[104]

Jupiter has a lowaxial tilt,thus ensuring that the poles always receive lesssolar radiationthan the planet's equatorial region.Convectionwithin the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer.[58]: 54 

Great Red Spot and other vortices

Close-up of the Great Red Spot imaged by theJunospacecraftin true colour. Due to the wayJunotakes photographs, stitched image has extremebarrel distortion.

A well-known feature of Jupiter is theGreat Red Spot,[105]a persistentanticyclonicstorm located 22° south of the equator. It was first observed in 1831,[106]and possibly as early as 1665.[107][108]Images by theHubble Space Telescopehave shown two more "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot.[109][110]The storm is visible through Earth-basedtelescopeswith anapertureof 12 cm or larger.[111]The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with aperiodof about six days.[112]The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above the surrounding cloud tops.[113]The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociatedammoniareacting withacetyleneis a likely explanation.[114]

The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth.[115]Mathematical modelssuggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet.[116]However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of theVoyagerflybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi).[117]Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size to 20,950 km (13,020 mi), and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17,910 km (11,130 mi). As of 2015,the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi),[117]and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year.[115][118]In October 2021, aJunoflyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 mi).[119]

Junomissions show that there are several polar cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with a large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of 7 storms.[120][121]

Formation of Oval BA from three white ovals

In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was namedOval BA.It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red Spot".[122][123]

In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at itsnorth pole.This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giantvortexsimilar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to bequasi-stablelike thevorticesin Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow.[124]

Magnetosphere

Main article:Magnetosphere of Jupiter
Auroraeon thenorthandsouth poles
(animation)
Auroraeon the north pole
(Hubble). False colour image composite.
Infraredview of southern lights
(Jovian IR Mapper). False colour image.

Jupiter'smagnetic fieldis the strongest of any planet in the Solar System,[104]with adipole momentof 4.170gauss(0.4170mT) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT).[125]This field is thought to be generated byeddy currents—swirling movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with thesolar windgenerates abow shock.Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is amagnetopause,located at the inner edge of amagnetosheath—a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter'slee sideand extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from solar wind.[68]: 69 

The volcanoes on the moonIoemit large amounts ofsulfur dioxide,forming a gastorusalong its orbit. The gas isionizedin Jupiter'smagnetosphere,producing sulfur and oxygenions.They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form aplasma sheetin Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30MHzthat are detectable from Earth with consumer-gradeshortwave radio receivers.[126][127]As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generatesAlfvén wavesthat carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through acyclotronmaser mechanism,and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, theradio emissionsfrom Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun.[128]

Planetary rings

Main article:Rings of Jupiter

Jupiter has a faintplanetary ringsystem composed of three main segments: an innertorusof particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring.[129]These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings are made of ice.[68]: 65 The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellitesAdrasteaandMetis,which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts.[130]In a similar way, the moonsThebeandAmaltheaare believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring.[130]There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit.[131]

Orbit and rotation

3-hour timelapse showing rotation of Jupiter and orbital motion of the moons

Jupiter is the only planet whosebarycentrewith the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by only 7% of the Sun's radius.[132][133]The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (5.2AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a nearorbital resonance.[134]Theorbital planeof Jupiter isinclined1.30° compared to Earth. Because theeccentricityof its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun atperihelionthanaphelion,[2]which means that its orbit is nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds withexoplanetdiscoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being only two giant planets in our Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities.[135]

Theaxial tiltof Jupiter is relatively small, only 3.13°, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars.[136]

Jupiter'srotationis the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on itsaxisin slightly less than ten hours; this creates anequatorial bulgeeasily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoesdifferential rotation.The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere.[137]The planet is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across itsequatoris longer than the diameter measured between itspoles.[87]On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter.[2]

Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s.[138]System III was defined byradio astronomersand corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation.[139]

Observation

Jupiter and four Galilean moons seen through an amateur telescope

Jupiter is usually thefourth brightest object in the sky(after the Sun, theMoon,andVenus),[104]although at oppositionMarscan appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 atoppositiondown to −1.66 duringconjunctionwith the Sun.[14]The meanapparent magnitudeis −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33.[14]Theangular diameterof Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5arc seconds.[2]Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through theperihelionof its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth.[140]Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go intoretrograde motionfor a period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement.[141]

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, thephase angleof Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained.[142]A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's fourGalilean moonsand the prominent cloud belts acrossJupiter's atmosphere.A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 inches (10–15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.[143][144]

History

Pre-telescopic research

Model in theAlmagestof the longitudinal motion of Jupiter (☉) relative to Earth (🜨)

Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least theBabylonian astronomersof the 7th or 8th century BC.[145]The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as the "SuìStar "(SuìxīngTuế tinh) and established their cycle of 12earthly branchesbased on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to rotate around the Sun; theChinese languagestill uses its name (simplifiedasTuế) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into theChinese zodiac,[146]and each year became associated with aTai Suistar andgodcontrolling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in someTaoistreligious practicesand in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals. The Chinese historianXi Zezonghas claimed thatGan De,an ancientChinese astronomer,[147]reported a small star "in alliance" with the planet,[148]which may indicate a sighting of one ofJupiter's moonswith the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia.[149][150]

A 2016 paper reports thattrapezoidal rulewas used byBabyloniansbefore 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along theecliptic.[151]In his 2nd century work theAlmagest,the Hellenistic astronomerClaudius Ptolemaeusconstructed ageocentricplanetary model based ondeferentsandepicyclesto explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years.[152]

Ground-based telescope research

Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and its "Medicean Stars" fromSidereus Nuncius

In 1610, Italian polymathGalileo Galileidiscovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as theGalilean moons) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo,Simon Mariusindependently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614.[153]It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery was a major point in favour ofCopernicus'heliocentrictheory of the motions of the planets; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by theInquisition.[154]

Letter ofFrancesco Fontanato thegrand duke of TuscanyFerdinando II de' Medici

In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere.[155]

During the 1660s,Giovanni Cassiniused a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period.[156]In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation.[157]

The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 byRobert Hookeand in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacistHeinrich Schwabeproduced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.[158]The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878.[159]It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century.[160]

BothGiovanni Borelliand Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which allowed predictions of when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, Cassini observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected.Ole Rømerdeduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected),[50]and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate thespeed of light.[161][162]

In 1892,E. E. Barnardobserved a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36-inch (910 mm) refractor atLick Observatoryin California. This moon was later namedAmalthea.[163]It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by a visual observer through a telescope.[164]An additional eight satellites were discovered before the flyby of theVoyager 1probe in 1979.[e]

Jupiter viewed in infrared byJWST,July 14, 2022

In 1932,Rupert Wildtidentifiedabsorption bandsof ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.[165]Three long-lived anticyclonic features called "white ovals" were observed in 1938. For several decades, they remained as separate features in the atmosphere, sometimes approaching each other but never merging. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becomingOval BA.[166]

Radiotelescope research

Image of Jupiter and its radiation belts in radio

In 1955, Bernard Burke andKenneth Franklindiscovered that Jupiter emits bursts of radio waves at a frequency of 22.2 MHz.[68]: 36 The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they used this information to determine a more precise value for Jupiter's rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L-bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S-bursts) lasting less than a hundredth of a second.[167]

Scientists have discovered three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter:

  • Decametric radio bursts (with a wavelength of tens of metres) vary with the rotation of Jupiter, and are influenced by the interaction of Io with Jupiter's magnetic field.[168]
  • Decimetric radio emission (with wavelengths measured in centimetres) was first observed byFrank Drakeand Hein Hvatum in 1959.[68]: 36 The origin of this signal is a torus-shaped belt around Jupiter's equator, which generatescyclotron radiationfrom electrons that are accelerated in Jupiter's magnetic field.[169]
  • Thermal radiationis produced by heat in the atmosphere of Jupiter.[68]: 43 

Exploration

Main article:Exploration of Jupiter

Jupiter has been visited by automatedspacecraftsince 1973, when the space probePioneer 10passed close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about its properties and phenomena.[170][171]Missions to Jupiter are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, ordelta-v.Entering aHohmann transfer orbitfrom Earth to Jupiter fromlow Earth orbitrequires a delta-v of 6.3 km/s,[172]which is comparable to the 9.7 km/s delta-v needed to reach low Earth orbit.[173]Gravity assiststhrough planetaryflybyscan be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter.[174]

Flyby missions

Spacecraft Closest
approach 		Distance (km)
Pioneer 10 December 3, 1973 130,000
Pioneer 11 December 4, 1974 34,000
Voyager 1 March 5, 1979 349,000
Voyager 2 July 9, 1979 570,000
Ulysses February 8, 1992[175] 408,894
February 4, 2004[175] 120,000,000
Cassini December 30, 2000 10,000,000
New Horizons February 28, 2007 2,304,535

Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft performed planetary flyby manoeuvres that brought them within the observation range of Jupiter. ThePioneermissions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of theJovian system.Radio occultationsby the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening.[58]: 47 [176]

Six years later, theVoyagermissions vastly improved the understanding of theGalilean moonsand discovered Jupiter's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Spot had changed hues since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io's orbital path, which were found to come from erupting volcanoes on the moon's surface. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in thenight sideatmosphere.[58]: 87 [177]

The next mission to encounter Jupiter was theUlyssessolar probe. In February 1992, it performed a flyby manoeuvre to attain apolar orbitaround the Sun. During this pass, the spacecraft studied Jupiter's magnetosphere, although it had no cameras to photograph the planet. The spacecraft passed by Jupiter six years later, this time at a much greater distance.[175]

In 2000, theCassiniprobe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided higher-resolution images.[178]

TheNew Horizonsprobe flew by Jupiter in 2007 for a gravity assist en route toPluto.[179]The probe's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail.[180]

Galileomission

Main article:Galileo (spacecraft)
Galileoin preparation for mating with the rocket, 1989

The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was theGalileomission, which reached the planet on December 7, 1995.[64]It remained in orbit for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons andAmalthea.The spacecraft also witnessed the impact ofComet Shoemaker–Levy 9when it collided with Jupiter in 1994. Some of the goals for the mission were thwarted due to a malfunction inGalileo's high-gain antenna.[181]

A 340-kilogram titaniumatmospheric probewas released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter's atmosphere on December 7.[64]It parachuted through 150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km/h (1,600 mph)[64]and collected data for 57.6 minutes until the spacecraft was destroyed.[182]TheGalileoorbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003.NASAdestroyed the spacecraft to avoid any possibility of the spacecraft crashing into and possibly contaminating the moon Europa,which may harbour life.[181]

Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90% of Jupiter's atmosphere.[64]The recorded temperature was more than 300 °C (570 °F), and the wind speed measured more than 644 km/h (>400 mph) before the probes vaporized.[64]

Junomission

Main article:Juno (spacecraft)
Junopreparing for testing in a rotation stand, 2011

NASA'sJunomission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, with the goal of studying the planet in detail from apolar orbit.The spacecraft was originally intended to orbit Jupiter thirty-seven times over a period of twenty months.[183][76][184]During the mission, the spacecraft will be exposed to high levels of radiation fromJupiter's magnetosphere,which may cause the failure of certain instruments.[185]On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first flyby of Jupiter and sent back the first-ever images of Jupiter's north pole.[186]

Junocompleted 12 orbits before the end of its budgeted mission plan, ending in July 2018.[187]In June of that year, NASA extended the mission operations plan to July 2021, and in January of that year the mission was extended to September 2025 with four lunar flybys: one of Ganymede, one of Europa, and two of Io.[188][189]WhenJunoreaches the end of the mission, it will perform a controlled deorbit and disintegrate into Jupiter's atmosphere. This will avoid the risk of collision with Jupiter's moons.[190][191]

Cancelled missions and future plans

There is great interest in missions to study Jupiter's larger icy moons, which may have subsurface liquid oceans.[192]Funding difficulties have delayed progress, causing NASA'sJIMO(Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) to be cancelled in 2005.[193]A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA/ESAmission calledEJSM/Laplace,with a provisional launch date around 2020. EJSM/Laplace would have consisted of the NASA-ledJupiter Europa Orbiterand the ESA-ledJupiter Ganymede Orbiter.[194]However, the ESA formally ended the partnership in April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European-only mission to compete in its L1Cosmic Visionselection.[195]These plans have been realized as the European Space Agency'sJupiter Icy Moon Explorer(JUICE), launched on April 14, 2023,[196]followed by NASA'sEuropa Clippermission, scheduled for launch in 2024.[197]

Views of Jupiter fromJunoCam

Other proposed missions include theChinese National Space Administration'sTianwen-4mission which aims to launch an orbiter to the Jovian system and possiblyCallistoaround 2035,[198]and CNSA'sInterstellar Express[199]and NASA'sInterstellar Probe,[200]which would both use Jupiter's gravity to help them reach the edges of the heliosphere.

Moons

Main article:Moons of Jupiter
See also:Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moonsandSatellite system (astronomy)

Jupiter has 95 knownnatural satellites,[7]and it is likely that this number would go up in the future due to improved instrumentation.[201]Of these, 79 are less than 10 km in diameter.[7]The four largest moons are Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa (in order of decreasing size), collectively known as the "Galilean moons",and are visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night.[202]

Galilean moons

Main article:Galilean moons

The moons discovered by Galileo—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—are among the largest in the Solar System. The orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede form a pattern known as aLaplace resonance;for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbours at the same point in every orbit it makes. Thetidal forcefrom Jupiter, on the other hand, works tocircularizetheir orbits.[203]

Theeccentricityof their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons' shapes, with Jupiter's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. Thefrictioncreated by this tidal flexinggenerates heatin the interior of the moons.[204]This is seen most dramatically in thevolcanic activityof Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces),[204]and to a lesser degree in the geological youth ofEuropa's surface,which indicates recent resurfacing of the moon's exterior.[205]

The Galilean moons compared to the Earth'sMoon
Name IPA Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital period
km D☾ kg M☾ km a☾ days T☾
Io /ˈaɪ.oʊ/ 3,643 1.05 8.9×1022 1.20 421,700 1.10 1.77 0.07
Europa /jʊˈroʊpə/ 3,122 0.90 4.8×1022 0.65 671,034 1.75 3.55 0.13
Ganymede /ˈɡænimiːd/ 5,262 1.50 14.8×1022 2.00 1,070,412 2.80 7.15 0.26
Callisto /kəˈlɪstoʊ/ 4,821 1.40 10.8×1022 1.50 1,882,709 4.90 16.69 0.61
The Galilean satellites in false colour. From left to right, in order of increasing distance from Jupiter:Io,Europa,Ganymede,Callisto.
The Galilean satellitesIo,Europa,Ganymede,andCallisto(in order of increasing distance from Jupiter) in false colour

Classification

Jupiter's moons were traditionally classified into four groups of four, based on their similarorbital elements.[206]This picture has been complicated by the discovery of numerous small outer moons since 1999. Jupiter's moons are currently divided into several different groups, although there are several moons which are not part of any group.[207]

The eight innermostregular moons,which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter's equator, are thought to have formed alongside Jupiter, whilst the remainder areirregular moonsand are thought to becaptured asteroidsor fragments of captured asteroids. The irregular moons within each group may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.[208][209]

Regular moons
Inner group The inner group of four small moons all have diameters of less than 200 km, orbit at radii less than 200,000 km, and have orbital inclinations of less than half a degree.[210]
Galilean moons[211] These four moons, discovered byGalileo Galileiand bySimon Mariusin parallel, orbit between 400,000 and 2,000,000 km, and are some of the largest moons in the Solar System.
Irregular moons
Himalia group A tightly clustered group ofprograde-orbitingmoons with orbits around 11,000,000–12,000,000 km from Jupiter.[212]
Carpo group A sparsely populated group of small moons with highly inclined prograde orbits around 16,000,000–17,000,000 km from Jupiter.[7]
Ananke group This group ofretrograde-orbitingmoons has rather indistinct borders, averaging 21,276,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 149 degrees.[209]
Carme group A tightly clustered group of retrograde-orbiting moons that averages 23,404,000 km from Jupiter with an average inclination of 165 degrees.[209]
Pasiphae group A dispersed and only vaguely distinct retrograde group that covers all the outermost moons.[213]

Interaction with the Solar System

As the most massive of the eight planets, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. With the exception ofMercury,the orbits of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter'sorbital planethan the Sun'sequatorial plane.TheKirkwood gapsin theasteroid beltare mostly caused by Jupiter,[214]and the planet may have been responsible for the purportedLate Heavy Bombardmentin the inner Solar System's history.[215]

In addition to its moons, Jupiter's gravitational field controls numerousasteroidsthat have settled around theLagrangian pointsthat precede and follow the planet in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as theTrojan asteroids,and are divided intoGreekandTrojan"camps" to honour theIliad.The first of these,588 Achilles,was discovered byMax Wolfin 1906; since then more than two thousand have been discovered.[216]The largest is624 Hektor.[217]

The Jupiter family is defined as comets that have asemi-major axissmaller than Jupiter's; mostshort-period cometsbelong to this group. Members of the Jupiter family are thought to form in theKuiper beltoutside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter, they areperturbedinto orbits with a smaller period, which then becomes circularized by regular gravitational interactions with the Sun and Jupiter.[218]

Impacts

Main article:Impact events on Jupiter
Brown spots markComet Shoemaker–Levy 9's impact sites on Jupiter

Jupiter has been called the Solar System'svacuum cleaner[219]because of its immensegravity welland location near the inner Solar System. There are moreimpacts on Jupiter,such as comets, than on any other planet in the Solar System.[220]For example, Jupiter experiences about 200 times moreasteroidandcometimpacts than Earth.[64]In the past, scientists believed that Jupiter partially shielded the inner system from cometary bombardment.[64]However, computer simulations in 2008 suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as itaccretesor ejects them.[221]This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from theKuiper belt,while others believe that Jupiter protects Earth from theOort cloud.[222]

In July 1994, theComet Shoemaker–Levy 9comet collided with Jupiter.[223][224]The impacts were closely observed by observatories around the world, including theHubble Space TelescopeandGalileospacecraft.[225][226][227][228]The event was widely covered by the media.[229]

Surveys of early astronomical records and drawings produced eight examples of potential impact observations between 1664 and 1839. However, a 1997 review determined that these observations had little or no possibility of being the results of impacts. Further investigation by this team revealed a dark surface feature discovered by astronomerGiovanni Cassiniin 1690 may have been an impact scar.[230]

In culture

See also:Jupiter in fictionandPlanets in astrology § Jupiter
Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition ofGuido Bonatti'sLiber Astronomiae

The existence of the planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low.[231]To theBabylonians,this planet represented their godMarduk,[232]chief of their pantheon from theHammurabiperiod.[233]They used Jupiter's roughly 12-year orbit along theeclipticto define theconstellationsof theirzodiac.[232]

Themythical Greekname for this planet isZeus(Ζεύς), also referred to asDias(Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modernGreek.[234]The ancient Greeks knew the planet asPhaethon(Φαέθων), meaning "shining one" or "blazing star".[235][236]The Greek myths of Zeus from theHomericperiod showed particular similarities to certainNear-Easterngods, including the SemiticElandBaal,the SumerianEnlil,and the Babylonian god Marduk.[237]The association between the planet and the Greek deity Zeus was drawn from Near Eastern influences and was fully established by the fourth century BC, as documented in theEpinomisofPlatoand his contemporaries.[238]

The godJupiteris the Roman counterpart of Zeus, and he is the principalgodofRoman mythology.The Romans originally called Jupiter the "star of Jupiter" (Iuppiter Stella), as they believed it to be sacred to its namesake god. This name comes from theProto-Indo-Europeanvocativecompound *Dyēu-pəter(nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr,meaning "Father Sky-God", or "Father Day-God" ).[239]As the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the god of thunder, lightning, and storms, and was called the god of light and sky.[240]

InVedic astrology,Hindu astrologers named the planet afterBrihaspati,the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it "Guru",which means the" Teacher ".[241][242]InCentral Asian Turkic myths,Jupiter is calledErendizorErentüz,fromeren(of uncertain meaning) andyultuz( "star" ). The Turks calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz's movements in the sky.[243]The Chinese, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese called it the "wood star" (Chinese:Mộc tinh;pinyin:mùxīng), based on the ChineseFive Elements.[244][245][246]In China, it became known as the "Year-star" (Sui-sing), as Chinese astronomers noted that it jumped onezodiacconstellation each year (with corrections). In some ancient Chinese writings, the years were, in principle, named in correlation with the Jovian zodiac signs.[247]

  • Infrared view of Jupiter, imaged by theGemini Northtelescope in Hawaii, January 11, 2017. False colour added.
  • Jupiter imaged in visible light by theHubble Space Telescope,January 11, 2017. Colours and contrasts are enhanced.
  • Ultraviolet view of Jupiter by Hubble, January 11, 2017.[248]False coloured image.
  • Jupiter and Europa, taken by Hubble on August 25, 2020, when the planet was 653 million kilometres from Earth. False colour image.[249]
  • Infrared photo byJames Webb Space Telescope,July 27, 2022. False colour image.[250][251][252]

See also

Notes

  1. ^abcdefRefers to the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
  2. ^Based on the volume within the level of 1 bar atmospheric pressure
  3. ^See for example:"IAUC 2844: Jupiter; 1975h".International Astronomical Union. October 1, 1975.RetrievedOctober 24,2010.That particular word has been in use since at least 1966. See:"Query Results from the Astronomy Database".Smithsonian/NASA.RetrievedJuly 29,2007.
  4. ^About the same assugar syrup(syrupUSP),[42]
  5. ^SeeMoons of Jupiterfor details and cites

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Further reading

Library resourcesabout
Jupiter


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