Wikipedia

Kalmykia

Kalmykia,[note 1]officially theRepublic of Kalmykia,[note 2]is arepublicof Russia, located in theNorth Caucasusregion ofSouthern Russia.The republic is part of theSouthern Federal District,and bordersDagestanto the south andStavropol Kraito the southwest;Volgograd Oblastto the northwest and north andAstrakhan Oblastto the north and east;Rostov Oblastto the west and theCaspian Seato the east. Through theCaspian Depression,theKumariver forms Kalmykia's natural border with Dagestan. Kalmykia is the only region inEuropewhere theDharmic religionofBuddhismis the predominant religion.[10]

Republic of Kalmykia
Хальмг Таңһч(Oirat)
Республика Калмыкия(Russian)
Republic
Flag of Republic of Kalmykia
Flag
Coat of arms of Republic of Kalmykia
Coat of arms
Anthem:
"Khalmg Tanghchin chastr"[1]
"Anthem of the Republic of Kalmykia"
Location of Republic of Kalmykia
Coordinates:46°34′N45°19′E/ 46.567°N 45.317°E/46.567; 45.317
CountryRussia
Federal districtSouthern
Economic regionNorth Caucasus
CapitalElista[3]
Government
• TypePeople's Khural[4]
•Head[6]Batu Khasikov[5]
Area
• Total74,731 km2(28,854 sq mi)
Population
(2021 Census)
• TotalIncrease267,133
[2]
• Rank78th
•Urban
46.7%
•Rural
53.3%
Time zoneUTC+3(MSK[7])
ISO 3166 codeRU-KL
Vehicle registration08
Official language(s)Kalmyk[8]•Russian[9]
Websitekalmregion.ru

The Kalmykia republic covers an area of 76,100 square kilometres (29,400 square miles), with a small population of about 275,000 residents.[11]The republic is home to theKalmyks,a people ofMongolianorigin who are primarily ofTibetan Buddhistfaith. The capital of the republic is the city ofElista.

Geography

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The republic is located inSouthern Russia,lying north of the North Caucasus. A small stretch of theVolga Riverflows through eastern Kalmykia. Other major rivers include theYegorlyk,theKuma,and theManych.Lake Manych-Gudilois the largest lake; other lakes of significance includeLakes SarpaandTsagan-Khak.The highest point of Kalmykia is 222 metres (728 ft) highShared,located in theYergenihills.[12]

Kalmykia's natural resources includecoal,oil,andnatural gas.

Climate

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The average January temperature is −5 °C (23 °F) and the average July temperature is 24 °C (75 °F). Average annualprecipitationranges from 170 millimeters (6.7 in) in the east of the republic to 400 millimeters (16 in) in the west. The small town of Utta is the hottest place in Russia. On July 12, 2010, during a significant heatwave affecting all of Russia, an all-time record-high temperature was observed at 45.4 °C (113.7 °F).

Flora and fauna

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Bamb Tsetsg (Tulip) Island national park

The republic's wildlife includes thesaiga antelope,whose habitat is protected inChyornye Zemli Nature Reserve.

National Parks

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  • Bamb Tsetsg Tulip Island

History

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Map of the Republic of Kalmykia.
TheGolden Templein Elista

According to theKurgan hypothesis,the upland regions of modern-day Kalmykia formed part of the cradle ofIndo-European culture.Hundreds ofkurganscan be seen in these areas, known as theIndo-EuropeanUrheimat(Samara culture,Sredny Stog culture,Yamna culture).

Some of the first recorded peoples to move into this territory were theScythiansandSarmatiansfrom the central Eurasian steppe, bringingtheir respective religious systemswith them. Later on, all three major Abrahamic religions also took root, with theKhazarconversion toJudaismbeing a notable (if historically contested) episode in the religion's history. TheAlanswere a major Muslim people group, who faced the invadingMongolsand theirTengristpractices, with some of the latter settling permanently. The laterNogaiswereMuslim,but were replaced by the contemporaneousMongolianKalmyks,who practiceTibetan Buddhism.With the annexation of the region by theRussian Empire,there was an influx of theEast Slavic-speakingRussian Orthodoxsettlers. Many religious institutions were suppressed in the wake of theRussian Revolution.

Kalmyk autonomy

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The ancestors of theKalmyks,theOirats,migrated from the steppes of southern Siberia on the banks of theIrtysh River,reaching the Lower Volga region by the early 17th century. Historians have given various explanations for the move, but generally recognise that the Kalmyks sought abundant pastures for their herds. Another motivation may have involved escaping the growing dominance of the neighbouringDzungarMongol tribe.[13] They reached the lower Volga region in or about 1630. That land, however, was not uncontested pastures, but rather the homeland of theNogai Horde,a confederation ofTurkic-speaking nomadic tribes. The Kalmyks expelled the Nogais, who fled to the Caucasian plains and to theCrimean Khanate,areas (at least theoretically) under the control of theOttoman Empire.Some Nogai groups sought the protection of the Russian garrison atAstrakhan.The remaining nomadic Mongol Oirat tribes became vassals of theKalmyk Khan.

The Kalmyks settled in the wide-open steppes – fromSaratovin the north to Astrakhan on the Volga delta in the south and to theTerek Riverin the southwest. They also encamped on both sides of the Volga River, from theDon Riverin the west to theUral Riverin the east. Although these territories had been recently annexed by theTsardom of Russia,Moscow was in no position to settle the area with Russian colonists. This area under Kalmyk control would eventually be called theKalmyk Khanate.

Within twenty-five years of settling in the Lower Volga region, the Kalmyks became subjects of theTsar of Russia.In exchange for protecting Russia's southern border, the Kalmyks were promised an annual allowance and access to the markets of Russian border settlements. The open access to Russian markets was supposed to discourage mutual raiding on the part of the Kalmyks and of theRussiansandBashkirs,a Russian-dominated Turkic people, but this was not often the practice. In addition, Kalmyk allegiance was often nominal, as the Kalmyk Khans practised self-government, based on a set of laws they called the Great Code of the Nomads (Iki Tsaadzhin Bichig).

The Kalmyk Khanate reached its peak of military and political power underAyuka Khan(ruled 1672–1724, khan 1690–1724). During his era, the Kalmyk Khanate fulfilled its responsibility to protect the southern borders of Russia and conducted many military expeditions against its Turkic-speaking neighbours. Successful military expeditions were also conducted in the Caucasus. The Khanate experienced economic prosperity from free trade with Russian border towns, with China, with Tibet and with Muslim neighbours. During this era, the Kalmyks also kept close contacts with their Oirat kinsmen inDzungaria,as well as with theDalai LamainTibet.

Russian Civil War

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Kalmyk Khurul Tsagan Aman

After theOctober Revolutionin 1917, many Don Kalmyks joined theWhite Russianarmy and fought under the command of GeneralsDenikinandWrangelduring theRussian Civil War.Before theRed Armybroke through to theCrimean Peninsulatowards the end of 1920, a large group of Kalmyks fled from Russia with the remnants of the defeated White Army to the Black Sea ports of Turkey.

The majority of the refugees chose to resettle inBelgrade,Serbia.Other, much smaller, groups choseSofia(Bulgaria),Prague(Czechoslovakia) and Paris andLyon(France). The Kalmyk refugees in Belgrade built a Buddhist temple there in 1929.

Soviet period

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Coat of arms of Kalmyk ASSR

In July 1919, Bolshevik leaderVladimir Leninissued an appeal[14]to the Kalmyk people, calling for them to revolt and to aid the Red Army. Lenin promised to provide the Kalmyks, among other things, a sufficient quantity of land for their own use. The promise came to fruition on November 4, 1920, when a resolution was passed by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee proclaiming the formation of theKalmyk Autonomous Oblast.Fifteen years later, on October 22, 1935, the Oblast was elevated to republic status,Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

In line with the policy ofKorenizatsiyabased on the concept oftitular nations,the government of the Soviet Union adopted a strategy ofnational delimitation,while at the same time enforcing theLeninistprinciple ofdemocratic centralism.According to Dorzha Arbakov, decentralized governing bodies were a tool the Bolsheviks used to control the Kalmyk people:

... the Soviet authorities were greatly interested in Sovietizing Kalmykia as quickly as possible and with the least amount of bloodshed. Although the Kalmyks alone were not a significant force, the Soviet authorities wished to win popularity in the Asian and Buddhist worlds by demonstrating their evident concern for the Buddhists in Russia.[15]

After establishing control, the Soviet authorities did not overtly enforce an anti-religion policy, other than through passive means, because it sought to bring Mongolia[16]and Tibet[17]into its sphere of influence. The government also was compelled to respond to domestic disturbances resulting from the economic policies ofWar Communismand the1921 famine. The passive measures that were taken by Soviet authorities to control the people included the imposition of a harsh tax to close places of worship and religious schools. The Cyrillic script replacedTodo Bichig,the traditional Kalmyk vertical script.

On January 22, 1922,Mongoliaproposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the famine in Kalmykia. Russia refused help; 71–72,000 Kalmyks died during the famine.[18][dubious–discuss]Revolts erupted among the Kalmyks in 1926 and 1930 (on 1942–1943, see the next section). In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to thetundrasofSiberiaandKarelia.[18]

The Kalmyks of theDon Voisko Oblastwere subject to the policies ofde-cossackizationwhere villages were destroyed,khuruls(temples) and monasteries were burned down and executions were indiscriminate. At the same time, grain, livestock and other foodstuffs were seized.[citation needed] In December 1927 the Fifteenth Party Congress of the Soviet Union passed a resolution calling for the "voluntary"collectivization of agriculture.The change in policy was accompanied by a new campaign of repression, directed initially against the small farming class. The objective of this campaign was to suppress the resistance of farming peasants to the full-scale collectivization of agriculture.

World War II

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On June 22, 1941, the German army invaded the Soviet Union. By August 12, 1942, the GermanArmy Group SouthcapturedElista,the capital of the Kalmyk ASSR. After capturing the Kalmyk territory, German army officials established a propaganda campaign with the assistance of anti-communist Kalmyk nationalists, includingwhite emigre,Kalmyk exiles. The total Jewish dead numbered between 100[19]and upwards of 700, according to documents held in the Kalmyk State Archives.[20]The campaign was focused primarily on recruiting and organizing Kalmyk men into anti-Soviet militia units.

  • Kalmüken Verband Dr. Doll (Kalmukian Volunteers)
  • Abwehrtrupp 103 (Kalmukian Volunteers)
  • Kalmücken-Legion orKalmücken-Kavallerie-Korps(Kalmukian Volunteers)

The Kalmyk units were extremely successful in flushing out and killingSoviet partisans.But by December 1942, the Soviet Red Army retook the Kalmyk ASSR, forcing the Kalmyks assigned to those units to flee, in some cases with their wives and children in hand.

The Kalmyk units retreated westward into unfamiliar territory with the retreating German army and were reorganized into the Kalmuck Legion, although the Kalmyks themselves preferred the name Kalmuck Cavalry Corps. The casualty rate also increased substantially during the retreat, especially among the Kalmyk officers. To replace those killed, the German army imposed forced conscription, taking in teenagers and middle-aged men. As a result, the overall effectiveness of the Kalmyk units declined.

By the end of the war, the remnants of the Kalmuck Cavalry Corps had made their way to Austria where the Kalmyk soldiers and their family members became post-war refugees.

Those who did not want to leave formed militia units that chose to stay behind and harass the oncoming Soviet Red Army.

Although a number of Kalmyks chose to fight against the Soviet Union, the majority by and large did not, fighting the German army in regular Soviet Red army units and in partisan resistance units behind the battlelines throughout the Soviet Union. Before their removal from the Soviet Red Army and from partisan resistance units after December 1943, approximately 8,000 Kalmyks were awarded various orders and medals, including 21 Kalmyk men who were recognized as aHero of the Soviet Union.[21]

Memorial to the deportation inTroitskoye

On December 27, 1943, Soviet authorities declared that "many Kalmyks" were guilty of cooperation with the German Army[22]and cited that as a justification to orderthe deportation of the entire Kalmyk population,including those who had served with the Soviet Army, to various locations in Central Asia and Siberia. In conjunction with the deportation, the Kalmyk ASSR was abolished and its territory was split between adjacentAstrakhan,RostovandStalingrad OblastsandStavropol Krai.To completely obliterate any traces of the Kalmyk people, the Soviet authorities renamed the former republic's towns and villages.[23]

Post-war Kalmykia

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Elista, the capital of Kalmykia, 9 May 2015.

Due to their widespread dispersal in Siberia, their language and culture suffered a possibly irreversible decline.Khrushchevfinally allowed their return in 1957, when they found their homes, jobs, and land occupied by importedRussiansandUkrainians,who remained.[citation needed]On January 9, 1957, Kalmykia again became an autonomous oblast, and on July 29, 1958, an autonomous republic within theRussian SFSR.

In the following years, bad planning of agricultural and irrigation projects resulted in widespreaddesertification.On orders from Moscow, sheep production increased beyond levels that the fragile steppe could sustain, resulting in 1.4 million acres (5666 km2) of the artificial desert.[24]To ramp up output, economically nonviable industrial plants were constructed.

After the dissolution of the USSR, Kalmykia kept the status of an autonomous republic within the newly formedRussian Federation(effective March 31, 1992).

Politics

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Parliament of Kalmykia in Lenin Square, Elista.

The head of the government in Kalmykia is called "The Head of the Republic". After a reform in 2006 that made the governors of the federal subjects appointable by the President, thePresident of Russiaselected a candidate for the Head of the Republic position and presented it to the Parliament of Kalmyk Republic, thePeople's Khural,for approval. If a candidate was not approved, the President of the Russian Federation could dissolve the Parliament and set up new elections. Since the reform was revoked in 2011, the Head of the Republic has been elected by a direct vote, the first such election happening in 2014.

Flag of Kalmykia in 1992–1993

From 1993 to 2010, the Head of the Republic wasKirsan Nikolayevich Ilyumzhinov.He also was the president of the world chess organizationFIDEuntil 2018. He has spent much of his fortune on promoting chess in Kalmykia—where chess is compulsory in all primary schools—and also overseas, with Elista, the capital of Kalmykia, hosting many international tournaments.

In the late 1990s, the Ilyumzhinov government was alleged to be spending too much government money on chess-related projects. The allegations were published in Sovietskaya Kalmykia, the opposition newspaper in Elista.Larisa Yudina,the journalist who investigated these accusations, was kidnapped and murdered in 1998. Two men, Sergei Vaskin and Tyurbi Boskomdzhiv, who worked in the local civil service, were charged with her murder, one of them having been a former presidential bodyguard. After prolonged investigations by the Russian authorities, both men were found guilty and jailed, but no evidence was discovered that Ilyumzhinov himself was in any way responsible.[25][26][27]

On October 24, 2010, Ilyumzhinov was replaced byAlexey Orlovas the new Head of Kalmykia. Since September 2019 the acting President of Kalmykia isBatu Khasikov.[28]

Since 2008,Anatoly Kozachkohas been President of the Parliament, the People's Khural. The current[when?]Prime Minister of Kalmykia isLyudmila Ivanovna.All the three top politicians belong to theKremlin's "United Russia"Party.[29]

The Kalmyk NationalistOirat-Kalmyk People's Congresshas been convening since 2015 and supporting certain people in the People's Khural of Kalmykia elections, as well as pushing for political change inside Kalmykia.[30][31]It is now part of theFree Nations of Post-Russia Forum,an organisation which advocates the dissolution of the Russian Federation.[32]

Administrative divisions

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Main article:Administrative divisions of the Republic of Kalmykia

Demographics

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Life expectancy at birth in Kalmykia

Population:267,133 (2021 Census);[33]289,481 (2010 Census);[11]292,410 (2002 Census);[34]322,589 (1989 Soviet census).[35]

Life expectancy:[36][37]

2019 2021
Average: 74.8 years 71.4 years
Male: 69.3 years 67.3 years
Female: 80.3 years 75.4 years

Vital statistics

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Vital statistics
Source:Russian Federal State Statistics ServiceArchivedApril 12, 2008, at theWayback Machine
Average population (x 1000) Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Fertility rates
1970 269 4,801 1,661 3,140 17.8 6.2 11.7
1975 283 5,923 2,228 3,695 20.9 7.9 13.1
1980 299 7,062 2,735 4,327 23.6 9.1 14.5
1985 314 7,945 2,832 5,113 25.3 9.0 16.3
1990 326 6,828 2,669 4,159 20.9 8.2 12.7 2,66
1991 327 6,369 2,755 3,614 19.5 8.4 11.1 2,58
1992 323 5,865 2,806 3,059 18.2 8.7 9.5 2,57
1993 319 5,027 3,167 1,860 15.8 9.9 5.8 2,30
1994 317 4,684 3,226 1,458 14.8 10.2 4.6 2,20
1995 316 4,321 3,359 962 13.7 10.6 3.0 2,03
1996 314 3,929 3,232 697 12.5 10.3 2.2 1,82
1997 313 3,845 3,072 773 12.3 9.8 2.5 1,77
1998 311 3,858 3,279 579 12.4 10.5 1.9 1,76
1999 309 3,598 3,356 242 11.6 10.8 0.8 1,62
2000 308 3,473 3,439 34 11.3 11.2 0.1 1,55
2001 302 3,530 3,357 173 11.7 11.1 0.6 1,57
2002 295 3,729 3,637 92 12.7 12.3 0.3 1,70
2003 291 3,874 3,437 437 13.3 11.8 1.5 1,77
2004 291 3,923 3,184 739 13.5 11.0 2.5 1,77
2005 290 3,788 3,350 438 13.1 11.5 1.5 1,69
2006 289 3,820 3,207 613 13.2 11.1 2.1 1,69
2007 289 4,146 3,141 1,005 14.3 10.9 3.5 1,83
2008 289 4,354 2,976 1,378 15.1 10.3 4.8 1,93
2009 289 4,270 3,115 1,155 14.8 10.8 4.0 1,81
2010 289 4,432 3,191 1,241 15.3 11.0 4.3 1,88
2011 288 4,194 2,920 1,274 14,5 10,1 4.4 1,81
2012 286 4,268 2,870 1,398 15,0 10,1 4.9 1,89
2013 283 4,126 2,805 1,321 14,6 9,9 4.7 1,88
2014 281 3,969 2,787 1,182 14,1 9,9 4.2 1,85
2015 280 3,823 2,743 1,080 13,6 9,8 3.8 1,83
2016 278 3,492 2,709 783 12.5 9.7 2.8 1.72(e)
2017 277 3,028 2,755 273 10.9 9.9 1.0
2018 275 3,043 2,649 394 11.0 9.6 1.4
2019 2,814 2,561 253 10.3 9.4 0.9
2020 2,758 3,013 -255 10.2 11.1 -0.9
2021 2,650 3,633 -983 9.8 13.5 -3.7
2022 2,434 2,778 -343 9.1 10.4 -1.3
2023 2,403 2,517 -114 9.1 9.5 -0.4
Historical population
YearPop.±%
1926161,176—
1959184,857+14.7%
1970267,993+45.0%
1979293,528+9.5%
1989322,589+9.9%
2002292,410−9.4%
2010289,481−1.0%
2021267,133−7.7%
Source: Census data

Ethnic groups

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Main article:Demographics of Russia § Peoples of the Caucasus

According to the 2021 Census,Kalmyksmake up 62.5% of the republic's population. Other groups includeRussians(25.7%),Dargins(2.8%),Kazakhs(1.7%),Turks(1.6%),Chechens(1.1%),Avars(1.0%), andKoreans(0.4%).[38]

Census year Kalmyks Russians Others
# % # % # %
1926 107,026
75.6%
 15,212
10.7%
 19,356
13.7%
1939 107,315
48.6%
 100,814
45.7%
 12,555
5.7%
1959 64,882
35.1%
 103,349
55.9%
 16,626
9.0%
1970 110,264
41.1%
 122,757
45.8%
 34,972
13.0%
1979 122,167
41.5%
 125,510
42.6%
 46,850
15.9%
1989 146,316
45.4%
 121,531
37.7%
 54,732
17.0%
2002 155,938
53.3%
 98,115
33.6%
 38,357
13.1%
2010 162,740
57.4%
 85,712
30.2%
 35,239
12.4%
2021[a] 159,138
62.5%
 65,490
25.7%
 30,135
11.8%
  1. ^12,370 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.[39]
Ethnic map of Caucasus

The population of Kalmyks in the Russian Empire, Soviet Union and Russian Federation:

[40]
year population
1897
190,648
1926
128,809
1939
129,786
1959
100,603
1970
131,318
1979
140,103
1989
165,103
2002
174,000
2010
183,372
2021
179,547

Religion

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Religion in Kalmykia (2012)[41]

Buddhism(47.6%)
Russian Orthodoxy(18%)
Other and undeclared (9.6%)
Spiritual but not religious(8.2%)
Atheist(8%)
Islam(4.8%)
TengrismandShamanism(3%)
OtherChristians(0.8%)

Tibetan Buddhismis the traditional and most popular religion among theKalmyks,whileethnic Russiansin the country practice predominantlyRussian Orthodoxy.A minority of Kalmyks practice pre-BuddhistshamanismorTengrism(a contemporary revival of the Turkic and Mongolic shamanic religions). Many people are unaffiliated andnon-religious.

According to a 2012 survey,[42]47.6% of the population of Kalmykia adhere to Buddhism, 18% to theRussian Orthodox Church,4.8% toIslam,3% toTengrismor Kalmykshamanism,1% areunaffiliatedChristians,1% are either Orthodox Christian believers who do not belong to a church or are members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 0.4% adhere to forms ofHinduism,and 9.0% follow other religions or did not give an answer to the survey. In addition, 8.2% of the population declared themselves to be "spiritual but not religious"and another 8% to beatheist.[42]

Education

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Kalmyk State Universityis the largest higher education facility in the republic.

Economy

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Kalmykia has a developed agricultural sector. Other developed industries include thefood processingand oil and gas industries.

As most of Kalmykia is arid, irrigation is necessary for agriculture. The Cherney Zemli Irrigation Scheme (Черноземельская оросительная система) in southern Kalmykia receives water from theCaucasianriversTerekandKumavia a chain of canals: water flows from the Terek to the Kuma via theTerek-Kuma Canal,then to theChogray Reservoiron theEast ManychRiver via theKuma–Manych Canal,and finally into Kalmykia's steppes over the Cherney Zemli Main Canal, constructed in the 1970s.[43]

The government of Kalmykia spends about $100 million annually. Its annual oil production is about 1,270,000 barrels.

Emigration and culture

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Traditional instruments include thedombra.

The Kalmyks ofKyrgyzstanlive primarily in theKarakolregion of eastern Kyrgyzstan. They are referred to asSart Kalmyks.The origin of this name is unknown. Likewise, it is not known when, why and from where this small group of Kalmyks migrated to eastern Kyrgyzstan. Due to their minority status, the Sart Kalmyks have adopted theKyrgyz languageand culture of the majority Kyrgyz population.

Although many Sart Kalmyks areMuslims,Kalmyks elsewhere, by and large, remain faithful to theGelugpaOrder ofTibetan Buddhism.In Kalmykia, for example, the Gelugpa Order with the assistance of the government has constructed numerous Buddhist temples. In addition, the Kalmyk people recognizeTenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lamaas their spiritual leader andErdne Ombadykow,aKalmyk American,as the supreme lama of the Kalmyk people. The Dalai Lama has visited Elista on a number of occasions.

The Kalmyks have also establishedcommunities in the United States,primarily inPennsylvaniaandNew Jersey.The majority are descended from those Kalmyks who fled from Russia in late 1920 to France,Yugoslavia,Bulgaria,and, later, Germany. Many of those Kalmyks living in Germany at the end of World War II were eventually granted passage to the United States.

As a consequence of their decades-long migration through Europe, many older Kalmyks are fluent in German, French, andSerbo-Croatian,in addition to Russian and their nativeKalmyk language.There are several Kalmyk Buddhist temples inMonmouth County, New Jersey,where the vast majority of American Kalmyks reside, as well as a Tibetan BuddhistLearning Centerand monastery inWashington Township, New Jersey.At one point during the 20th century, there was a Kalmyk Buddhist temple inBelgrade,Serbia.

The wordKalmykmeans 'those who remained'. Its origin is unknown but this name was known centuries before a large part of the Kalmyks moved back from the Volga River toDzhungariain the 18th century.

There are three cultural subgroups within the Kalmyk nation:Turguts,Durbets(Durwets), andBuzavs(Oirats,who joined the RussianCossacks), as well as some villages of Hoshouts and Zungars. The Durbets subgroup includes theChonostribe (literally meaning "a tribe of the wolf", also called "Shonos", "Chinos", "A-Shino", or "A-Chino" ).

Kalmykia staged the 2006World Chess ChampionshipbetweenVeselin TopalovandVladimir Kramnik.[44]

Most of the Republic of Kalmykia lies in theCaspian Depression,a low-lying region down to 27 meters (89 ft) belowsea level.

See also

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References

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Notes

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^/kɑːlˈmiːkiə/kahl-MEEK-ee-ə;Russian:Калмыкия,IPA:[kɐlˈmɨkʲɪjə];Kalmyk:Хальмг,romanized:Khalmg,IPA:[χalʲˈməq]
  2. ^Russian:Республика Калмыкия,IPA:[rʲɪsˈpublʲɪkəkɐlˈmɨkʲɪjə];Kalmyk:Хальмг Таңһч,Khalmg TanghchIPA:[χalʲˈməqtʰaɴʁə̆ˈt͡ɕʰɪ̃]

Citations

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  1. ^Law #44-I-Z
  2. ^"Оценка численности постоянного населения по субъектам Российской Федерации".Federal State Statistics Service.Retrieved1 September2022.
  3. ^Steppe Code (Constitution) of the Republic of Kalmykia, Article 19
  4. ^Steppe Code (Constitution) of the Republic of Kalmykia, Article 33
  5. ^Official website of the Head of the Republic of Kalmykia.Alexey Maratovich OrlovArchivedFebruary 16, 2019, at theWayback Machine(in Russian)
  6. ^Steppe Code (Constitution) of the Republic of Kalmykia, Article 25
  7. ^"Об исчислении времени". Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации(in Russian).Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2020.Retrieved19 January2019.
  8. ^Steppe Code (Constitution) of the Republic of Kalmykia, Article 17:Государственными языками в Республике Калмыкия являются калмыцкий и русский языки.[The official languages of the Republic of Kalmykia are the Kalmyk and Russian languages.]
  9. ^Official throughout the Russian Federation according to Article 68.1 of theConstitution of Russia.
  10. ^Nikolay Shevchenko (21 February 2018)."Check out Russia's Kalmykia: The only region in Europe where Buddhism rules the roost".Russia Beyond.Retrieved29 November2020.
  11. ^abRussian Federal State Statistics Service (2011).Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1[2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1].Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года [2010 All-Russia Population Census](in Russian).Federal State Statistics Service.
  12. ^Google Earth
  13. ^ Robert L. Worden; Andrea Matles Savada."Caught Between the Russians and the Manchus".Mongolia a Country Study.GPO for the Library of Congress.Retrieved13 February2011.
  14. ^Isvestia, Moscow, July 24, 1919
  15. ^Dorzha Arbakov, 'The Kalmyks' in Nikolai Dekker and Andrei Lebed, (Eds)Genocide in the USSR, Chapter II, Complete Destruction of National Groups as Groups,Series I, No. 40, (Institute for the Study of the USSR, 1958), p. 90.
  16. ^Bawden, C.R.The Modern History of Mongolia,Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, New York, (1968).
  17. ^Meyer, Karl E. and Brysac, Shareen Blair.Tournament of Shadows,Counterpoint, Washington, D.C., (1999)
  18. ^abXX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан(Mongolian)
  19. ^"Freitag 03 – eine Karawanserei".www.freitag.de.Archived fromthe originalon 24 November 2005.Retrieved2 February2022.
  20. ^"USHMM Receives Lost Archives from Kalmyk Republic of the Russian Federation Detailing Previously Unknown Atrocities".United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.December 22, 2000. Archived fromthe originalon April 2, 2015.RetrievedMarch 9,2015.
  21. ^"Регистрация в букмекерской конторе Винлайн с телефона и компьютера".postomania.ru.
  22. ^"Указ Президиума ВС СССР от 27.12.1943 о ликвидации Калмыцкой АССР и образовании Астраханской области в составе РСФСР — Викитека".ru.wikisource.org.
  23. ^Polian, P.M.;Pobol', N.L., eds. (2005).Stalinskie deportatsii 1928–1953.Rossiia. XX vek. Dokumenty (in Russian). Moscow: Mezhdunarodnyi fond "Demokratiia"; Maternik. pp. 410–34.ISBN5-85646-143-6.OCLC65289542.
  24. ^National Geographic Society, "Caspian Sea." March 1999.
  25. ^World Press Freedom ReviewArchivedMarch 9, 2007, at theWayback Machine
  26. ^"In Russia, many conform, few resist".Archived fromthe originalon January 10, 2014.RetrievedFebruary 25,2007.
  27. ^Kalder. Lost Cosmonaut, p70.
  28. ^"Republic of Kalmykia » Batu Khasikov won the election of the head of Kalmykia".Retrieved2021-02-28.
  29. ^[1]– See the web site of the Government of Kalmykia with links.
  30. ^"Обращение Исполкома Съезда ойрат-калмыцкого народа"[Address of the Executive Committee of the Congress of the Oirat-Kalmyk people].Элистинский Курьер.Retrieved2022-05-25.
  31. ^"Kalmykia: Russia's Emerging Powder Keg?".Jamestown Foundation.Retrieved2022-05-25.
  32. ^""Я обязательно выучу названия этих 34 государств" В Европейском парламенте прошел "Форум свободных народов России". Его участники хотят разделить страну на несколько десятков государств. Репортаж "Медузы"".Meduza(in Russian).Retrieved2023-04-16.
  33. ^Russian Federal State Statistics Service.Всероссийская перепись населения 2020 года. Том 1[2020 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1](XLS)(in Russian).Federal State Statistics Service.
  34. ^Federal State Statistics Service(21 May 2004).Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек[Population of Russia, Its Federal Districts, Federal Subjects, Districts, Urban Localities, Rural Localities—Administrative Centers, and Rural Localities with Population of Over 3,000](XLS).Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года [All-Russia Population Census of 2002](in Russian).
  35. ^Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров[All Union Population Census of 1989: Present Population of Union and Autonomous Republics, Autonomous Oblasts and Okrugs, Krais, Oblasts, Districts, Urban Settlements, and Villages Serving as District Administrative Centers].Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года [All-Union Population Census of 1989](in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики [Institute of Demography at the National Research University: Higher School of Economics]. 1989 – viaDemoscope Weekly.
  36. ^"Демографический ежегодник России"[The Demographic Yearbook of Russia] (in Russian).Federal State Statistics Service of Russia(Rosstat).Retrieved28 June2022.
  37. ^"Ожидаемая продолжительность жизни при рождении"[Life expectancy at birth].Unified Interdepartmental Information and Statistical System of Russia(in Russian).Retrieved28 June2022.
  38. ^"Национальный состав населения".Federal State Statistics Service.Retrieved30 December2022.
  39. ^Перепись-2010: русских становится больше.Perepis-2010.ru (2011-12-19). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  40. ^"Демоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей".www.demoscope.ru.
  41. ^"Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей"[Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities](PDF).Среда (Sreda). 2012.See also the results'main interactive mappingand the static mappings:"Religions in Russia by federal subject"(Map).Ogonek.34(5243). 27 August 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 21 April 2017.The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with theAll-Russia Population Census 2010 (Всероссийской переписи населения 2010),theRussian Ministry of Justice (Минюста РФ),the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See:"Проект АРЕНА: Атлас религий и национальностей"[Project ARENA: Atlas of religions and nationalities].Russian Journal.10 December 2012.
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  43. ^""What Kalmykia's economy is based on"".Archived fromthe originalon May 26, 2007.
  44. ^Rohrer, Finlo (2006)"Game of kings takes centre stage"

General sources

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  • Конституционное Собрание Республики Калмыкия. 5 апреля 1994 г. «Степное Уложение (Конституция) Республики Калмыкия», в ред. Закона №358-IV-З от 29 июня 2012 г. «О внесении изменений в отдельные законодательные акты Республики Калмыкия по вопросам проведения выборов Главы Республики Калмыкия». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования в газетах "Хальмг Унн" и "Известия Калмыкии". Опубликован: "Известия Калмыкии", №60, 7 апреля 1994 г.(Constitutional Assembly of the Republic of Kalmykia. April 5, 1994Steppe Code (Constitution) of the Republic of Kalmykia,as amended by the Law #358-IV-Z of June 29, 2012On Amending Various Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kalmykia on the Issues of Organization of the Elections of the Head of the Republic of Kalmykia.Effective as of the day of the official publications in the "Khalmg Unn" and "Izvestiya Kalmykii" newspapers.).
  • Народный Хурал (Парламент) Республики Калмыкия. Закон №44-I-З от 14 июня 1996 г. «О государственных символах Республики Калмыкия», в ред. Закона №152-IV-З от 18 ноября 2009 г. «О внесении изменения в Закон Республики Калмыкия "О государственных символах Республики Калмыкия" ». Вступил в силу с момента опубликования. Опубликован: "Ведомости Народного Хурала (Парламента) Республики Калмыкия", №2, стр. 113, 1997 г.(People's Khural (Parliament) of the Republic of Kalmykia. Law #44-I-Z of June 14, 1996On the Symbols of State of the Republic of Kalmykia,as amended by the Law #152-IV-Z of November 18, 2009On Amending the Law of the Republic of Kalmykia "On the Symbols of State of the Republic of Kalmykia".Effective as of the moment of publication.).
  • Президиум Верховного Совета СССР. Указ от 29 июля 1958 г. «О преобразовании Калмыцкой автономной области в Калмыцкую Автономную Советскую Социалистическую Республику».(Presidium of the Supreme Sovietof the USSR. Decree of July 29, 1958On the Transformation of Kalmyk Autonomous Oblast into the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.).

Further reading

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  • Arbakov, Dorzha.Genocide in the USSR,Chapter II, "Complete Destruction of National Groups as Groups, The Kalmyks", Nikolai Dekker and Andrei Lebed, Editors, Series I, No. 40, Institute for the Study of the USSR, Munich, 1958.
  • Balinov, Shamba.Genocide in the USSR,Chapter V, "Attempted Destruction of Other Religious Groups, The Kalmyk Buddhists", Nikolai Dekker and Andrei Lebed, Editors, Series I, No. 40, Institute for the Study of the USSR, Munich, 1958.
  • Bethell, Nicholas.The Last Secret,Futura Publications Limited, Great Britain, 1974.
  • Corfield, Justin.The History of Kalmykia: From Ancient times to Kirsan Ilyumzhinov and Aleksey Orlov,Australia, 2015. The first major history of Kalmykia in English, heavily illustrated, and drawing on interviews with Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, Nicholas Ilyumzhinov and Aleksey Orlov amongst others.
  • Epstein, Julius.Operation Keelhaul,Devin-Adair, Connecticut, 1973.
  • Grousset, René.The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia,Rutgers University Press, 1970.
  • Halkovic, Stephen A. Jr.The Mongols of the West,Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series, Volume 148, Larry Moses, Editor, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1985.
  • Hoffmann, Joachim:Deutsche und Kalmyken 1942 bis 1945,Rombach Verlag, Friedberg, 1986.
  • Kalder, Daniel.Lost Cosmonaut: Observations of an Anti-tourist
  • Muñoz, Antonio J.The East Came West: Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist Volunteers in the German Armed Forces, 1941–1945,Chapter 8, "Followers of 'The Greater Way': Kalmück Volunteers in the German Army", Antonio J. Muñoz, Editor, Axis Europa Books, Bayside, New York, 2001.
  • Tolstoy, Nikolai.The Secret Betrayal, 1944–1947,Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1977.
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