Wikipedia

Kannada

For other uses, seeKannada (disambiguation)andKanada (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withCanadaorKanata.

Kannada(/ˈkɑːnədə,ˈkæn-/;[4][5]ಕನ್ನಡ,IPA:[ˈkɐnːɐɖa]), formerly also known asCanarese,[6]is aDravidian languagespoken predominantly by the people ofKarnatakain southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 44 million native speakers, and is additionally a second or third language for around 15 million non-native speakers in Karnataka. The official and administrative language of the state of Karnataka,[7]it also hasscheduled statusin India and has been included among the country'sdesignated classical languages.[8][9]

Kannada
ಕನ್ನಡ
The word "Kannada" inKannada script
Pronunciation[ˈkɐnːɐɖa]
Native toIndia
RegionKarnataka
EthnicityKannadigas
Native speakers
L1:44 million (2011)[1]
L2:15 million (2011)[1]
Dravidian
  • Southern
    • Tamil–Kannada
      • Kannada
Early form
Official status
Official language in
Regulated byGovernment of Karnataka[2]
Language codes
ISO 639-1kn
ISO 639-2kan
ISO 639-3kan
Glottolognucl1305
Linguasphere49-EBA-a
Distribution of Kannada native speakers, majority regions in dark blue and minority regions in light blue.[3]
This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.
PersonKannaḍiga
PeopleKannaḍigaru
LanguageKannaḍa

Kannada was the court language of a number of dynasties and empires ofSouth,Central IndiaandDeccan Plateau,namely theKadamba dynasty,Western Ganga dynasty,Nolamba dynasty,Chalukya dynasty,Rashtrakutas,[10]Western Chalukya Empire,Seuna dynasty,Kingdom of Mysore,[11]Nayakas of Keladi,[12]Hoysala dynastyand theVijayanagara Empire.

The Kannada language is written using theKannada script,which evolved from the 5th-centuryKadamba script.Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia and literaryOld Kannadaflourished during the 9th-centuryRashtrakuta Empire.[13][14]Kannada has anunbroken literary historyof around 1200 years.[15]Kannada literature has been presented with eightJnanapith awards,the most for any Dravidian language and the second highest for any Indian language.[16][17][18]In July 2011, a center for the study of classical Kannada was established as part of theCentral Institute of Indian LanguagesinMysoreto facilitate research related to the language.[19]

Geographic distribution

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Kannada had 43.5 million native speakers in India at the time of the 2011 census. It is the main language of the state ofKarnataka,where it is spoken natively by 40.6 million people, or about two thirds of the state's population. There are native Kannada speakers in the neighbouring states ofTamil Nadu(1,140,000 speakers),Maharashtra(993,000),Andhra PradeshandTelangana(533,000),Kerala(78,100) andGoa(67,800).[20]It is also spoken as a second and third language by over 12.9 million non-native speakers in Karnataka.[21]

Kannadigas form Tamil Nadu's third biggest linguistic group; their population is roughly 1.23 million, which is 2.2% of Tamil Nadu's total population.[22][23]

TheMalayalamspoken by people ofLakshadweephas many Kannada words.[24]

In the United States, there were 35,900 speakers in 2006–2008,[25]a number that had risen to 48,600 by the time of the 2015 census. There are 4,000 speakers in Canada (according to the 2016 census), 9,700 in Australia (2016 census), 22,000 in Singapore (2018 estimate),[26]and 59,000 in Malaysia (2021 estimate).[26][better source needed]

Development

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Kannada is a SouthernDravidian languageand according to Sanford B. Steever, its history can be conventionally divided into three stages: Old Kannada (Haḷegannaḍa) from 450 to 1200 AD, Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa) from 1200 to 1700 and Modern Kannada (Hosagannaḍa) from 1700 to the present.[27]Kannada was influenced to a considerable degree bySanskritandPrakrit.The scholarIravatham Mahadevanindicated that Kannada was already a language of rich spoken tradition earlier than the 3rd century BC and based on the native Kannada words found in Prakrit inscriptions of that period, Kannada must have been spoken by a broad and stable population.[28][29][30]The scholar K. V. Narayana claims that many tribal languages which are now designated as Kannada dialects could be nearer to the earlier form of the language, with lesser influence from other languages.[28]

Other language influence

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Kannada andTamilare similar languages, with Kannada following the structure of the formal, old Tamil language. Kannada still retains many aspects of its original language, even though it has some differences from Tamil. Kannada, likeMalayalam,is a language belonging to the southern family of Indian languages and is located relatively near to the northern sections of the country. It also shares certain other language vocabulary. Kannada has mostly retained many of the Tamil words that were once used. This illustrates a certain similarity to Tamil, despite the language's recent linguistic modifications.[31][32]

The sources of influence on literary Kannada grammar appear to be three-fold:Pāṇini's grammar, non-Pāṇinian schools ofSanskritgrammar, particularlyKatantraandSakatayanaschools, andPrakritgrammar.[33]Literary Prakrit seems to have prevailed in Karnataka since ancient times. The vernacular Prakrit speaking people may have come into contact with Kannada speakers, thus influencing their language, even before Kannada was used for administrative or liturgical purposes. Kannada morphology, phonetics, vocabulary, grammar and syntax show significant influence from these languages.[33][34][35]

Some naturalised (tadbhava) words of Prakrit origin in Kannada are:baṇṇa(colour) derived fromvaṇṇa,huṇṇime(full moon) frompuṇṇivā.Examples of naturalised Sanskrit words in Kannada are:varṇa(colour),pūrṇime,andrāyafromrāja(king).[36]

Kannada also has borrowed (Tatsama) words such asdina(day),kōpa(anger),sūrya(sun),mukha(face),nimiṣa(minute).[37]

History

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Early traces

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Main articles:Halmidi inscription,Kappe Arabhatta,Shravanabelagola inscription of Nandisena,Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar,Atakur inscription,Doddahundi nishidhi inscription,andList of people associated with the study of Kannada inscriptions
TheHalmidi inscriptionatHalmidivillage, in old-Kannada, is usually dated to 450 AD (Kadamba Dynasty).
Old-Kannada inscription dated 578 AD (Badami Chalukya dynasty), outside Badami cave no.3
Old-Kannada inscription of c. 726 AD, discovered inTalakad,from the rule of King Shivamara I or Sripurusha (Western Ganga Dynasty)
Old-Kannada inscription of the 9th century (Rashtrakuta Dynasty) at Durga Devi temple inHampi,Karnataka
The famousAtakur inscription(AD 949) fromMandya district,a classical Kannada composition in two parts; a fight between a hound and a wild boar, and the victory of theRashtrakutasover the Chola dynasty in the famousbattle of Takkolam
Old Kannada inscription dated 1057 AD of Western Chalukya King Someshvara I atKalleshwara Temple, Hire HadagaliinBellary district
Old-Kannada inscription ascribed to KingVikramaditya VI(Western Chalukya Empire), dated AD 1112, at the Mahadeva Temple in Itagi, Koppal district of Karnataka state
Old-Kannada inscription of 1220 AD (Hoysala Empire) at Ishwara temple of Arasikere town in theHassan district
Kannada inscription dated 1509, of KingKrishnadevaraya(Vijayanagara Empire), at the Virupaksha temple inHampidescribes his coronation
Kannada inscription dated 1654, atYelandurwith exquisite relief

The earliest Kannada inscriptions are from the middle of the 5th century AD, but there are a number of earlier texts that may have been influenced by the ancestor language of Old Kannada.[38]

Iravatam Mahadevan, a Brahmin, author of a work on early Tamil epigraphy, argued that oral traditions in Kannada and Telugu existed much before written documents were produced. Although the rock inscriptions of Ashoka were written in Prakrit, the spoken language in those regions was Kannada as the case may be. He can be quoted as follows:[39]

If proof were needed to show that Kannada was the spoken language of the region during the early period, one needs only to study the large number of Kannada personal names and place names in the early Prakrit inscriptions on stone and copper in Upper South India [...] Kannada was spoken by relatively large and well-settled populations, living in well-organised states ruled by able dynasties like the Satavahanas, with a high degree of civilisation [...] There is, therefore, no reason to believe that these languages had less rich or less expressive oral traditions than Tamil had towards the end of its pre-literate period.

TheAshoka rock edictfound atBrahmagiri(dated to 250 BC) has been suggested to contain words (Isila,meaning to throw, viz. an arrow, etc.) in identifiable Kannada.[40][41][42]

In some 3rd–1st century BC Tamil inscriptions, words of Kannada influence such asNaliyura,kavuDiandposilwere found. In a 3rd-century AD Tamil inscription there is usage ofoppanappa vIran.Here the honorificappato a person's name is an influence from Kannada. Another word of Kannada origin istaayviruand is found in a 4th-century AD Tamil inscription. S. Settar studied thesittanavAsalinscription of first century AD as also the inscriptions attirupparamkunram,adakalaandneDanUpatti.The later inscriptions were studied in detail by Iravatham Mahadevan also. Mahadevan argues that the wordserumi,kavuDi,poshilandtAyiyarhave their origin in Kannada because Tamil cognates are not available. Settar adds the wordsnADuandiLayarto this list. Mahadevan feels that some grammatical categories found in these inscriptions are also unique to Kannada rather than Tamil. Both these scholars attribute these influences to the movements and spread of Jainas in these regions. These inscriptions belong to the period between the first century BC and fourth century AD. These are some examples that are proof of the early usage of a few Kannada origin words in earlyTamilinscriptions before the common era and in the early centuries of the common era.[43]

Pliny the Elder,a Roman historian, wrote about pirates betweenMuzirisand Nitrias (Netravati River), called Nitran by Ptolemy. He also mentions Barace (Barcelore), referring to the modern port city ofMangaluru,upon its mouth. Many of these are Kannada origin names of places and rivers of the Karnataka coast of 1st century AD.[44][45][46]

The Greek geographerPtolemy(150 AD) mentions places such as Badiamaioi (Badami), Inde (Indi), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudagal), Petrigala (Pattadakal), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Tiripangalida (Gadahinglai), Soubouttou or Sabatha (Savadi), Banaouase (Banavasi), Thogorum (Tagara), Biathana (Paithan), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Aloe (Ellapur) and Pasage (Palasige).[47]He mentions a Satavahana king Sire Polemaios, who is identified with Sri Pulumayi (or Pulumavi), whose name is derived from the Kannada word forPuli,meaning tiger. Some scholars indicate that the name Pulumayi is actually Kannada's 'Puli Maiyi' or 'One with the body of a tiger' indicating native Kannada origin for the Satavahanas.[48]Pai identifies all the 10 cities mentioned by Ptolemy (100–170 AD) as lying between the river Benda (or Binda) orBhima riverin the north and Banaouasei (Banavasi) in the south, viz. Nagarouris (Nagur), Tabaso (Tavasi), Inde (Indi), Tiripangalida (Gadhinglaj), Hippokoura (Huvina Hipparagi), Soubouttou (Savadi), Sirimalaga (Malkhed), Kalligeris (Kalkeri), Modogoulla (Mudgal) and Petirgala (Pattadakal), as being located in Northern Karnataka which signify the existence of Kannada place names (and the language and culture) in the southern Kuntala region during the reign ofVasishtiputra Pulumayi(c. 85-125 AD, i.e., late 1st century – early 2nd century AD) who was ruling from Paithan in the north and his son, prince Vilivaya-kura or Pulumayi Kumara was ruling from Huvina Hipparagi in present Karnataka in the south.[49]

An early ancestor of Kannada (or a related language) may have been spoken by Indian traders inRoman-era Egyptand it may account for the Indian-language passages in the ancient Greek play known as theCharition mime.[50]

Epigraphy

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The earliest examples of a full-length Kannada language stone inscription (śilāśāsana) containingBrahmicharacters with characteristics attributed to those ofproto-KannadainHaḷe Kannaḍa(litOld Kannada) script can be found in theHalmidi inscription,usually datedc. 450 AD,indicating that Kannada had become an administrative language at that time. The Halmidi inscription provides invaluable information about the history and culture of Karnataka.[51][52][53][54]A set of five copper plate inscriptions discovered in Mudiyanur, though in theSanskritlanguage, is in the Pre-Old Kannada scriptolder than the Halmidi edict date of 450 AD, as per palaeographers.

Followed byB. L. Rice,leading epigrapher and historian, K. R. Narasimhan following a detailed study and comparison, declared that the plates belong to the 4th century, i.e., 338 AD.[55][56][57][58][59][60]The Kannada Lion balustrade inscription excavated at the Pranaveshwara temple complex at Talagunda near Shiralakoppa of Shivamogga district, dated to 370 AD is now considered the earliest Kannada inscriptions replacing the Halmidi inscription of 450 AD.[61]The 5th century poetic Tamatekallu inscription ofChitradurgaand the Siragunda inscription fromChikkamagaluruTaluk of 500 AD are further examples.[62][63][64]Recent reports indicate that theOld KannadaGunabhushitanaNishadiinscription discovered on the Chandragiri hill,Shravanabelagola,is older than Halmidi inscription by about fifty to hundred years and may belong to the period AD 350–400.[65]

The noted archaeologist and art historian S. Shettar is of the opinion that an inscription of theWestern GangaKing Kongunivarma Madhava (c. 350–370) found at Tagarthi (Tyagarthi) in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district is of 350 AD and is also older than the Halmidi inscription.[66][67]

Current estimates of the total number of existingepigraphswritten in Kannada range from 25,000 by the scholarSheldon Pollockto over 30,000 by Amaresh Datta of theSahitya Akademi.[68][69]Prior to the Halmidi inscription, there is an abundance of inscriptions containing Kannada words, phrases and sentences, proving its antiquity. The 543 AD Badami cliff inscription ofPulakesi Iis an example of a Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script.[70][71]

Kannada inscriptions are discovered inAndhra PradeshandTelangana,Maharashtra,Tamil NaduMadhya Pradesh and Gujarat in addition to Karnataka. This indicates the spread of the influence of the language over the ages, especially during the rule of large Kannada empires.[72][73][74][75]

The earliest copper plates inscribed in Old Kannada script and language, dated to the early 8th century AD, are associated withAlupaKing Aluvarasa II from Belmannu (the Dakshina Kannada district), and display the double crested fish, his royal emblem.[76]The oldest well-preserved palm leaf manuscript inOld Kannadais that ofDhavala.It dates to around the 9th century and is preserved in the Jain Bhandar, Mudbidri,Dakshina Kannadadistrict.[77]The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink.[77]

Coins

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Some earlyKadamba Dynastycoins bearing the Kannada inscriptionViraandSkandhawere found in Satara collectorate.[78]A gold coin bearing three inscriptions ofSriand an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha's name calledbhagi(c. 390–420 AD) in old Kannada exists.[79]A Kadamba copper coin dated to the 5th century AD with the inscriptionSrimanaragiin Kannada script was discovered in Banavasi,Uttara Kannada district.[80]Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered spanning the rule of theWestern Ganga Dynasty,the BadamiChalukyas,theAlupas,theWestern Chalukyas,theRashtrakutas,theHoysalas,theVijayanagar Empire,theKadamba Dynastyof Banavasi, theKeladi Nayakasand theMysore Kingdom,the Badami Chalukya coins being a recent discovery.[81][82][83]The coins of the Kadambas of Goa are unique in that they have alternate inscription of the king's name in Kannada and Devanagari in triplicate,[84]a few coins of the Kadambas ofHangalare also available.[85]

Literature

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Main articles:Kannada literature,List of important milestones in Kannada literature,andList of notable epics in the Kannada language

Old Kannada

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Main articles:Rashtrakuta literature,Western Ganga literature,Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire,Hoysala literature,andMedieval Kannada literature
Shankha Jain Basaditemple at Lakshmeshwar where the notableAdikavi Pampawrote theAdipuranain Kannada language

The oldest known existing record of Kannada poetry inTripadimetre is theKappe Arabhattarecord of 7th century AD.[52][86]Kavirajamargaby King NripatungaAmoghavarshaI (850 AD) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada. It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardise various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries. The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as KingDurvinitaof the 6th century and Ravikirti, the author of the Aihole record of 636 AD.[87][88]Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants ofKannada grammarand literary styles, it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier.[87][89]An earlyextantprose work, theVaḍḍārādhane(ವಡ್ಡಾರಾಧನೆ) byShivakotiacharyaof 900 AD provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu ofShravanabelagola.[90]

Some of the early writers of prose and verse mentioned in theKavirajamarga,numbering 8–10, stating these are but a few of many, but whose works are lost, are Vimala or Vimalachandra (c. 777), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabandhu, Durvinita (6th century), and poets including Kaviswara, Srivijaya, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirti (c. 634) and Lokapala.[91][92][93][94][95]For fragmentary information on these writers, we can refer the workKarnataka Kavi Charite.Ancient indigenous Kannada literary compositions of (folk) poetry like theChattanaandBedandewhich preferred to use theDesimetre are said to have survived at least until the date of the Kavirajamarga in 850 AD and had their roots in the early Kannada folk literature. These Kannada verse-compositions might have been representative of folk songs containing influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit metrical patterns to some extent. "Kavirajamarga" also discusses earlier composition forms peculiar to Kannada, the "gadyakatha", a mixture of prose and poetry, the "chattana"and the"bedande",poems of several stanzas that were meant to be sung with the optional use of a musical instrument.[93][96][97]Amoghavarsha Nripatungacompares thepuratana-kavigal(old Kannada poets) who wrote the greatChattanapoems in Kannada to the likes of the great Sanskrit poets like Gunasuri, Narayana, Bharavi, Kalidasa, Magha, etc. This Old Kannada work,Kavirajamarga,itself in turn refers to aPalagannada(Old Kannada) of much ancient times, which is nothing but the Pre-Old Kannada and also warns aspiring Kannada writers to avoid its archaisms, as per R. S. Hukkerikar. Regarding earlier poems in Kannada, the author of "Kavirajamarga"states that old Kannada is appropriate in ancient poems but insipid in contemporaneous works as per R. Narasimhacharya.[91][93][98]Gunanandi (900 AD), quoted by the grammarian Bhattakalanka and always addressed asBhagawan(the adorable), was the author of a logic, grammar andsahitya.Durvinita (529–579 AD), the Ganga king, was the pupil of the author of Sabdavatara, i.e., Devanandi Pujyapada. Durvinita is said to have written a commentary on the difficult 15thsargaof Bharavi'sKiratarjuniyain Kannada. Early Kannada writers regularly mention three poets as of especial eminence among their predecessors – Samanta-bhadra, Kavi Parameshthi and Pujyapada. Since later Kannada poets so uniformly name these three as eminent poets, it is probable that they wrote in Kannada also. Samantabhadra is placed in 2nd century AD by Jain tradition. Old Kannada commentaries on some of his works exist. He was said to have born in Utkalikagrama and while performing penance in Manuvakahalli, he was attacked by a disease calledBhasmaka.[91]Pujyapada also called Devanandi, was the preceptor of Ganga king Durvinita and belonged to the late 5th to early 6th century AD. Kaviparameshthi probably lived in the 4th century AD. He may possibly be the same as theKaviswarareferred to in the Kavirajamarga, and theKaviparameswarapraised by Chavunda Raya (978 AD) and his spiritual teacher, Nemichandra (10th century AD), all the names possibly being only epithets.[99]

Kannada works from earlier centuries mentioned in theKavirajamargaare not yet traced. Some ancient Kannada texts now considered extinct but referenced in later centuries arePrabhrita(650 AD) by Syamakundacharya,Chudamani(Crest Jewel—650 AD or earlier) by Srivaradhadeva, also known as Tumbuluracharya, which is a work of 96,000 verse-measures and a commentary on logic (Tatwartha-mahashastra).[100][101][102]Other sources dateChudamanito the 6th century or earlier.[95][103]An inscription of 1128 AD quotes a couplet by the famous Sanskrit poet Dandin (active 680–720 AD), highly praising Srivaradhadeva, for his Kannada work Chudamani, as having "produced Saraswati (i.e., learning and eloquence) from the tip of his tongue, as Siva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top-knot." Bhattakalanka (1604 CE), the great Kannada grammarian, refers to Srivaradhadeva's Chudamani as the greatest work in Kannada, and as incontestable proof of the scholarly character and value of Kannada literature. This makes Srivaradhadeva's time earlier than the 6th–7th century AD.[99]Other writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references such as Indranandi's "Srutavatara", Devachandra's "Rajavalikathe",[93]Bhattakalanka's "Sabdanusasana" of 1604,[87]writings of Jayakirthi[104]are Syamakundacharya (650), who authored the "Prabhrita", and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), who wrote the "Chudamani" ( "Crest Jewel" ), a 96,000-verse commentary on logic.[87][95][103][105]TheKarnateshwara Katha,a eulogy for KingPulakesi II,is said to have belonged to the 7th century;[104]theGajastaka,a lost "ashtaka" (eight line verse) composition and a work on elephant management by KingShivamara II,belonged to the 8th century,[106]this served as the basis for 2 popular folk songsOvanigeandOnakevadu,which were sung either while pounding corn or to entice wild elephants into a pit ( "Ovam").[104][107][108]TheChandraprabha-puranaby Sri Vijaya, a court poet of emperorAmoghavarsha I,is ascribed to the early 9th century.[93]His writing has been mentioned by Vijayanagara poets Mangarasa III and Doddiah (also spelt Doddayya, c. 1550 AD) and praised by Durgasimha (c. 1025 AD).[109]During the 9th century period, the Digambara Jain poet Asaga (or Asoka) authored, among other writings, "Karnata Kumarasambhava Kavya" and "Varadamana Charitra". His works have been praised by later poets, although none of his works are available today.[94]"Gunagankiyam", the earliest known prosody in Kannada, was referenced in a Tamil work dated to 10th century or earlier ( "Yapparungalakkarigai" by Amritasagara). Gunanandi, an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose, flourished in the 9th century AD.[93][95]Around 900 AD, Gunavarma I wrote "Sudraka" and "Harivamsa" (also known as "Neminatha Purana" ). In "Sudraka" he compared his patron, Ganga king Ereganga Neetimarga II (c. 907–921 AD), to a noted king called Sudraka.[93][106]Jinachandra, who is referred to by Sri Ponna (c. 950 AD) as the author of "Pujyapada Charita", had earned the honorific "modern Samantha Bhadra".[110]Tamil Buddhist commentators of the 10th century AD (in the commentary onNeminatham,a Tamil grammatical work) make references that show that Kannada literature must have flourished as early as the BC 4th century.[111]

Around the beginning of the 9th century, Old Kannada was spoken fromKaveritoGodavari.The Kannada spoken between the riversVaradaandMalaprabhawas the pure well of Kannada undefiled.[112]

The late classical period gave birth to several genres of Kannada literature, with new forms of composition coming into use, includingRagale(a form of blank verse) and meters likeSangatyaandShatpadi.The works of this period are based onJainandHinduprinciples. Two of the early writers of this period areHariharaand Raghavanka, trailblazers in their own right. Harihara established theRagaleform of composition whileRaghavankapopularised theShatpadi(six-lined stanza) meter.[113]A famousJainawriter of the same period isJanna,who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works.[114]

TheVachana Sahityatradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature, and the sum of contributions by all sections of society. Vachanas were pithy poems on that period's social, religious and economic conditions. More importantly, they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution, which caused a radical re-examination of the ideas of caste, creed and religion. Some of the important writers of Vachana literature includeBasavanna,Allama PrabhuandAkka Mahadevi.[115]

Emperor Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I of 850 AD recognised that the Sanskrit style of Kannada literature wasMargi(formal or written form of language) andDesi(folk or spoken form of language) style was popular and made his people aware of the strength and beauty of their native language Kannada. In 1112 AD, Jain poet Nayasena of Mulugunda, Dharwad district, in his Champu workDharmamrita(ಧರ್ಮಾಮೃತ), a book on morals, warns writers from mixing Kannada with Sanskrit by comparing it with mixing of clarified butter and oil. He has written it using very limited Sanskrit words which fit with idiomatic Kannada. In 1235 AD, Jain poet Andayya, wroteKabbigara Kava- ಕಬ್ಬಿಗರ ಕಾವ (Poet's Defender), also calledSobagina Suggi(Harvest of Beauty) orMadana-Vijaya andKavana-Gella(Cupid's Conquest),aChampuwork in pure Kannada using only indigenous (desya) Kannada words and the derived form of Sanskrit words –tadbhavas,without the admixture of Sanskrit words. He succeeded in his challenge and proved wrong those who had advocated that it was impossible to write a work in Kannada without using Sanskrit words. Andayya may be considered as a protector of Kannada poets who were ridiculed by Sanskrit advocates. Thus Kannada is the only Dravidian language which is not only capable of using only native Kannada words and grammar in its literature (like Tamil), but also use Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary (like Telugu, Malayalam, Tulu, etc.) The Champu style of literature of mixing poetry with prose owes its origins to the Kannada language which was later incorporated by poets into Sanskrit and other Indian languages.[107][116][117][118][119][120]

Middle Kannada

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Main articles:Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empireandLiterature of the Kingdom of Mysore

During the period between the 15th and 18th centuries,Hinduismhad a great influence on Middle Kannada (Naḍugannaḍa- ನಡುಗನ್ನಡ) language and literature.Kumara Vyasa,who wrote theKarṇāṭa Bhārata Kathāman̄jari(ಕರ್ಣಾಟ ಭಾರತ ಕಥಾಮಂಜರಿ), was arguably the most influential Kannada writer of this period. His work, entirely composed in the nativeBhamini Shatpadi(hexa-meter), is a sublime adaptation of the first ten books of theMahabharata.[121] During this period, the Sanskritic influence is present in most abstract, religious, scientific and rhetorical terms.[122][123][124]During this period, severalHindiandMarathiwords came into Kannada, chiefly relating to feudalism and militia.[125]

Hindu saints of theVaishnavasect such asKanakadasa,Purandaradasa,Naraharitirtha,Vyasatirtha,Sripadaraya,Vadirajatirtha,Vijaya Dasa,Gopala Dasa,Jagannatha Dasa,Prasanna Venkatadasa produced devotional poems in this period.[126]Kanakadasa'sRāmadhānya Charite(ರಾಮಧಾನ್ಯ ಚರಿತೆ) is a rare work, concerning with the issue of class struggle.[127]This period saw the advent ofHaridasaSahitya(litDasa literature) which made rich contributions toBhaktiliterature and sowed the seeds of Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa is widely considered theFather of Carnatic music.[128][129][130]

Modern Kannada

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Main articles:Modern Kannada literatureandKannada poetry

The Kannada works produced from the 19th century make a gradual transition and are classified asHosagannaḍaor Modern Kannada. Most notable among the modernists was the poetNandalike Muddanawhose writing may be described as the "Dawn of Modern Kannada", though generally, linguists treatIndira BaiorSaddharma Vijayavuby Gulvadi Venkata Raya as the first literary works in Modern Kannada. The first modernmovable typeprinting of "Canarese" appears to be theCanarese GrammarofCareyprinted atSeramporein 1817, and the "Bible in Canarese"ofJohn Handsin 1820.[131]The first novel printed wasJohn Bunyan'sPilgrim's Progress,along with other texts includingCanarese Proverbs,The History of Little Henry and his BearerbyMary Martha Sherwood,Christian Gottlob Barth'sBible Storiesand "a Canarese hymn book."[132]

Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements, notablyNavodaya,Navya,Navyottara,DalitaandBandaya.Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society. Further, Kannada has produced a number of prolific and renowned poets and writers such asKuvempu,Bendre,andV K Gokak.Works of Kannada literature have received eightJnanpith awards,[133]the highest number awarded to any Indian language.[134]

Dictionaries

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Kannada–Kannada dictionary has existed in Kannada along with ancient works of Kannada grammar. The oldest available Kannada dictionary was composed by the poet 'Ranna' called 'Ranna Kanda' (ರನ್ನ ಕಂದ) in 996 AD. Other dictionaries are 'AbhidhanaVastukosha' (ಅಭಿದಾನ ವಾಸ್ತುಕೋಶ) by Nagavarma (1045 AD), 'Amarakoshada Teeku' (ಅಮರಕೋಶದ ತೀಕು) by Vittala (1300), 'Abhinavaabhidaana' (ಅಭಿನವಾಭಿದಾನ) by Abhinava Mangaraja (1398 AD) and many more.[135]A Kannada–English dictionary consisting of more than 70,000 words was composed byFerdinand Kittel.[136]

G. Venkatasubbaiahedited the first modern Kannada–Kannada dictionary, a 9,000-page, 8-volume series published by theKannada Sahitya Parishat.He also wrote a Kannada–English dictionary and akliṣtapadakōśa(ಕ್ಲಿಷ್ಟಪಾದಕೋಶ), a dictionary of difficult words.[137][138]

Dialects

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Main article:Kannada dialects

There is also a considerable difference between the spoken and written forms of the language. Spoken Kannada tends to vary from region to region. The written form is more or less consistent throughout Karnataka. TheEthnologuereports "about 20 dialects" of Kannada. Among them areKundagannada(spoken exclusively in Kundapura, Brahmavara, Bynduru and Hebri), Nador-Kannada (spoken byNadavaru),Havigannada(spoken mainly byHavyaka Brahmins),Are Bhashe(spoken by Gowda community mainly inMadikeriandSulliaregion ofDakshina Kannada), Malenadu Kannada (Sakaleshpur, Coorg, Shimoga, Chikmagalur),Sholaga,Gulbarga Kannada,Dharawad Kannada etc. All of these dialects are influenced by their regional and cultural background. The one millionKomarpantsin and around Goa speak their own dialect of Kannada, known as Halegannada. They are settled throughout Goa state, throughout Uttara Kannada district and Khanapur taluk of Belagavi district, Karnataka.[139][140][141]TheHalakki Vokkaligasof Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts of Karnataka speak in their own dialect of Kannada called Halakki Kannada or Achchagannada. Their population estimate is about 75,000.[142][143][144]

Ethnologue also classifies a group of four languages related to Kannada, which are, besides Kannada proper,Badaga,Holiya,KurumbaandUrali.[145]The Golars orGolkarsare a nomadic herdsmen tribe present inNagpur,Chanda,Bhandara,SeoniandBalaghatdistricts ofMaharashtraandMadhya Pradeshspeak the Golari dialect of Kannada which is identical to the Holiya dialect spoken by their tribal offshoot Holiyas present in Seoni, Nagpur and Bhandara of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. There were around 3,600 speakers of this dialect as per the 1901 census. Matthew A. Sherring describes the Golars and Holars as a pastoral tribe from theGodavaribanks established in the districts around Nagpur, in the stony tracts ofAmbagarh,forests around Ramplee and Sahangadhee. Along the banks of theWainganga,they dwell in the Chakurhaitee and Keenee subdivisions.[146]The Kurumvars of Chanda district of Maharashtra, a wild pastoral tribe, 2,200 in number as per the 1901 census, spoke a Kannada dialect called Kurumvari. The Kurumbas or Kurubas, a nomadic shepherd tribe were spread across theNilgiris,Coimbatore,Salem,NorthandSouth Arcots,Trichinopoly,TanjoreandPudukottaiof Tamil Nadu,CuddapahandAnantapurofAndhra Pradesh,MalabarandCochinofKeralaandSouth CanaraandCoorgofKarnatakaand spoke the Kurumba Kannada dialect. The Kurumba and Kurumvari dialect (both closely related with each other) speakers were estimated to be around 11,400 in total as per the 1901 census. There were about 34,250 Badaga speakers as per the 1901 census.[147]

Nasik districtof Maharashtra has a distinct tribe called 'Hatkar Kaanadi' people who speak a Kannada (Kaanadi) dialect with lot of old Kannada words. Per Chidananda Murthy, they are the native people of Nasik from ancient times, which shows that North Maharashtra's Nasik area had Kannada population 1000 years ago.[148][149]Kannada speakers formed 0.12% of Nasik district's population as per 1961 census.[150]

Writing system

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Main articles:Kannada scriptandKannada braille

The language uses forty-ninephonemicletters, divided into three groups:swaragalu(vowels – thirteen letters);vyanjanagalu(consonants – thirty-four letters); andyogavaahakagalu(neither vowel nor consonant – two letters:anusvaraಂandvisargaಃ). The character set is almost identical to that of otherIndian languages.The Kannada script is almost entirely phonetic, but for the sound of a "half n" (which becomes a half m). The number of written symbols, however, is far more than the forty-nine characters in the alphabet, because different characters can be combined to formcompoundcharacters(ottakshara).Each written symbol in the Kannada script corresponds with onesyllable,as opposed to onephonemein languages like English—the Kannada script is syllabic.

Phonology

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Spoken Kannada

Consonants

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Labial Dental/
Alveolar 		Retroflex Post-alv./
Palatal 		Velar Glottal
Nasal m(ಮ) n(ನ) ɳ(ಣ) (ɲ) (ಞ) (ŋ) (ಙ)
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless p(ಪ) t̪(ತ) ʈ(ಟ) tʃ(ಚ) k(ಕ)
aspirated pʰ(ಫ) t̪ʰ(ಥ) ʈʰ(ಠ) tʃʰ(ಛ) kʰ(ಖ)
voiced b(ಬ) d̪(ದ) ɖ(ಡ) dʒ(ಜ) ɡ(ಗ)
breathy bʱ(ಭ) d̪ʱ(ಧ) ɖʱ(ಢ) dʒʱ(ಝ) ɡʱ(ಘ)
Fricative s(ಸ) ʂ(ಷ) ʃ(ಶ) h(ಹ)
Approximant ʋ(ವ) l(ಲ) ɭ(ಳ) j(ಯ)
Rhotic r(ರ)
  • Most consonants can begeminated.
  • Aspirated consonantsvery rarely occur in native vocabulary only in a few numerals like the number 9 and 80, which can be written with a /bʱ/, as in "ಒಂಭತ್ತು",ಎಂಭತ್ತು.However, it is usually written with a /b/, as in "ಒಂಬತ್ತು",ಎಂಬತ್ತು.
  • The aspiration of consonants depends entirely on the speaker and many do not do it in non-formal situations.
  • The alveolar trill /r/ may be pronounced as an alveolar tap [ɾ].
  • The voiceless retroflex sibilant /ʂ/ is commonly pronounced as a /ʃ/ except in consonant clusters with retroflex consonants.
  • There are also the consonants /f, z/ which occur in recent English and Perso-Arabic loans but they may be replaced by the consonants /pʰ, dʒ/ respectively by speakers.[151]

Additionally, Kannada included the following phonemes, which dropped out of common usage in the 12th and 18th century respectively:

  • /r/ ಱ (ṟ), the alveolar trill.
  • /ɻ/ ೞ (ḻ), the retroflex central approximant.

Old Kannada had an archaic phoneme /ɻ/ under retroflexes in early inscriptions which merged with /ɭ/ and it maintained the contrast between /r/ (< PD ∗ṯ) and /ɾ/ from (< PD ∗r). Both merged in Medieval Kannada.[151]

In old Kannada at around 10th-14th century, most of the initial /p/debuccalisedinto a /h/ e.g. OlKn. pattu, MdKn. hattu "ten".[152]

Historically, the Tamil-Malayalam languages and, independently, Telugu, phonemically palatalised /k/ before a front vowel; Kannada never developed such phonemic palatalisation (c.f. Kn. ಕಿವಿ/kiʋi/,Ta. செவி/seʋi/,Te. చెవి/tʃeʋi/"ear" );[153]however,phonetically,Kannada speakers frequently palatalise velar consonants before front vowels, for example, realising ಕಿವಿ/kiʋi/"ear" as[ciʋi]and ಗಿಳಿ/ɡiɭi/"parrot" as[ɟiɭi].

Vowels

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Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close i(ಇ) iː(ಈ) u(ಉ) uː(ಊ)
Mid e(ಎ) eː(ಏ) o(ಒ) oː(ಓ)
Open a(ಅ) aː(ಆ)
  • /ɐ/and/aː/are phonetically central[ɐ,äː]./ɐ/may be as open as/aː/([ä]) or higher[ɐ].
  • The vowels /i iː e eː/ may be preceded by /j/ and the vowels /u uː o oː/ may be preceded by /ʋ/ when they are in an initial position.
  • The short vowels /a i u e o/, when in an initial or a medial position tend to be pronounced as [ɐ ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ]. In a final position, this phenomenon occurs less frequently.
  • /æː/ occurs in English loans but can be switched with /aː/ or /ja:/.[151]

At around the 8th century, Kannada raised the vowels e, o to i, u when before a short consonant and a high vowel, before written literature emerged in the language, e.g. Kn. kivi, Ta. cevi, Te. cevi "ear".[154]

Grammar

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Main article:Kannada grammar

The canonical word order of Kannada isSOV(subject–object–verb), typical of Indian languages. Kannada is a highlyinflectedlanguage with threegenders(masculine, feminine, and neuter or common) and two numbers (singular and plural). It is inflected for gender, number and tense, among other things. The most authoritative known book on old Kannada grammar isShabdhamanidarpanabyKeshiraja.The first available Kannada book, a treatise on poetics, rhetoric and basic grammar is theKavirajamargafrom 850 AD.

The most influential account of Kannada grammar isKeshiraja'sShabdamanidarpana(c. 1260 AD).[155][156]The earlier grammatical works include portions ofKavirajamarga(a treatise onalańkāra) of the 9th century, andKavyavalokanaandKarnatakabhashabhushana(both authored byNagavarma IIin the first half of the 12th century).[156]

Compound bases

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Compound bases, calledsamāsain Kannada, are a set of two or more words compounded together.[157]There are several types of compound bases, based on the rules followed for compounding. The types of compound bases or samāsas: tatpurusha, karmadhāraya, dvigu, bahuvreehi, anshi, dvandva, kriya and gamaka samāsa.[clarification needed]Examples:taṅgāḷi,hemmara,kannusanne.

Pronouns

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In many ways the third-person pronouns are more like demonstratives than like the other pronouns. They are pluralised like nouns and the first- and second-person pronouns have different ways to distinguish number.[158]

Sample text

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The given sample text is Article 1 from the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[159]

English

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All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Kannada

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ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಮಾನವರು ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರರಾಗಿಯೇ ಹುಟ್ಟಿದ್ದಾರೆ ಹಾಗು ಘನತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಧಿಕಾರಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಸಮಾನರಾಗಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ತಿಳಿವು ಮತ್ತು ಅಂತಃಕರಣಗಳನ್ನು ಪಡೆದವರಾದ್ದರಿಂದ, ಅವರು ಒಬ್ಬರಿಗೊಬ್ಬರು ಸಹೋದರ ಭಾವದಿಂದ ನಡೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬೇಕು.

Romanisation (ISO 15919)

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Ellā mānavaru svatantrarāgiyē huṭṭiddāre hāgu ghanate mattu adhikāragaḷalli samānarāgiddāre. Tiḷivu mattu antaḥkaraṇagaḷannu paḍedavarāddarinda avaru obbarigobbaru sahōdara bhāvadinda naḍedukoḷḷabēku.

IPA

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/ellaːmaːn̪ɐʋɐɾusʋɐt̪ɐn̪t̪ɾɐɾaːɡijeːhuʈʈid̪d̪aːɾehaːɡugʱɐn̪ɐt̪emɐt̪t̪uɐd̪ʱikaːɾɐɡɐɭɐllisɐmaːn̪ɐɾaːɡid̪d̪aːɾeǁt̪iɭiʋumɐt̪t̪uɐn̪t̪ɐkkɐɾɐɳɐɡɐɭɐn̪n̪upɐɖed̪ɐʋɐraːd̪d̪ɐɾin̪d̪ɐɐʋɐɾuobbɐɾiɡobbɐɾusɐhoːd̪ɐɾɐbʱaːʋɐd̪in̪d̪ɐn̪ɐɖed̪ukoɭɭɐbeːkuǁ/

See also

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References

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  1. ^abKannadaatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)
  2. ^The Karnataka official language act, 1963 – Karnataka Gazette (Extraordinary) Part IV-2A.Government of Karnataka.1963. p. 33.
  3. ^Schwartzberg, Joseph E.(1978)."Currency of Selected Languages and Scripts".A Historical Atlas of South Asia.University of Chicago Press. p. 102.ISBN978-0195068696.
  4. ^"Kannada".Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.
  5. ^"Kannada".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)
  6. ^Reeve, William (1858). Sanderson, Daniel (ed.).A Dictionary, Canarese and English.Bangalore: Wesleyan Mission Press.Retrieved18 January2017.
  7. ^"The Karnataka Official Language Act"(PDF).Official website of Department of Parliamentary Affairs and Legislation.Government of Karnataka.Retrieved29 June2007.
  8. ^Kuiper (2011), p. 74
  9. ^R Zydenbos in Cushman S, Cavanagh C, Ramazani J, Rouzer P,The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition,p. 767, Princeton University Press, 2012,ISBN978-0-691-15491-6
  10. ^Seshan, Radhika; Kumbhojkar, Shraddha (27 June 2018).Re-searching Transitions in Indian History.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0-429-94630-1.
  11. ^Ramaswamy, Harish (2007).Karnataka Government and Politics.Concept Publishing Company. p. 334.ISBN978-81-8069-397-7.
  12. ^Masica, Colin P. (9 September 1993).The Indo-Aryan Languages.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521299442.
  13. ^"Rastrakutas".Official website of theCentral Institute of Indian Languages.Archived fromthe originalon 10 January 2011.Retrieved12 May2008.
  14. ^Zvelebil (1973), p. 7 (Introductory, chart)
  15. ^Garg (1992), p. 67
  16. ^"Jnanpeeth Awardees from Karnataka | Jnanapeeta Awardees | Jnanpith Award".www.karnatakavision.com.Archived fromthe originalon 11 February 2021.Retrieved5 July2018.
  17. ^"Jnanpith Award: Eight Kannada authors who have won 'Jnanpith Award'".5 September 2017. Archived fromthe originalon 22 December 2020.Retrieved5 July2018.
  18. ^"Jnanpith Awards Winners Full List".27 July 2016.
  19. ^"IBNLive – CIIL to head Centre for classical Kannada study".ibnlive.in.com. 23 July 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 11 January 2012.Retrieved12 February2013.
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  29. ^Iravatham Mahadevan (2003).Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century AD.Cre-A.ISBN9780674012271.Retrieved12 April2007.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
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  33. ^abMythic Society (Bangalore, India) (1985).The quarterly journal of the Mythic society (Bangalore)., Volume 76.Mythic Society (Bangalore, India). pp. Pages_197–210.
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  36. ^Jha, Ganganatha (1976).Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Volume 32.Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha. pp. see page 319.
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  40. ^The wordIsilafound in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to shoot an arrow, is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language in the 3rd century BC (D.L. Narasimhachar in Kamath 2001, p5)
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  78. ^The coins are preserved at the Archaeological Section, Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Mumbai – Kundangar and Moraes inMoraes(1931), p382
  79. ^The coin is preserved at the Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai – Kundangar and Moraes inMoraes(1938), p 382
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  81. ^Kamath (2001), p12, p57
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  84. ^This shows that the native vernacular of the Goa Kadambas was Kannada –Moraes(1931), p384
  85. ^Two coins of the Hangal Kadambas are preserved at the Royal Asiatic Society, Mumbai, one with the Kannada inscriptionSaarvadhariand other withNakara.Moraes(1931), p385
  86. ^Kamath (2001), p. 67
  87. ^abcdSastri (1955), p355
  88. ^Kamath (2001), p90
  89. ^Jyotsna Kamat."History of the Kannada Literature-I".Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006.Kamat's Potpourri.Retrieved25 November2006.
  90. ^Sastri (1955), p356
  91. ^abcRice, Benjamin Lewis (April 1890)."Early History of Kannaḍa Literature".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.Cambridge University Press: 254–256, 245–262.JSTOR25208973.
  92. ^Rao in Datta (1994), pp. 2278–2283
  93. ^abcdefgR. Narasimhacharya (1934), pp. 2, 4–5, 12–18, 29
  94. ^abWarder (1988), pp. 240–241
  95. ^abcd6th century Sanskrit poet Dandin praised Srivaradhadeva's writing as "having producedSaraswatifrom the tip of his tongue, just asShivaproduced theGangesfrom the tip of his top knot "(Rice E.P., 1921, pp.25–28)
  96. ^Garg (1987), vol. 4
  97. ^Nagaraj in Sheldon (2003), p. 333
  98. ^Hukkerikar, Ramarao. S. (1955).Karnataka Darshana.R. S. Hukkerikar; sole distributor: Popular Book Depot. pp. 85, 87, 178, 205.
  99. ^abRice, Edward Peter (1915).A History of Kanarese Literature.Oxford University Press. pp. 22–26.
  100. ^The seventeenth-century Kannada grammarian Bhattakalanka wrote about theChudamanias a milestone in the literature of the Kannada language (Sastri (1955), p355)
  101. ^Jyotsna Kamat."History of the Kannada Literature – I".Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006.Kamat's Potpourri.Retrieved25 November2006.
  102. ^Narasimhacharya (1988), pp 4–5
  103. ^abRice, B.L. (1897), pp. 496–497
  104. ^abcChidananda Murthy in Kamath (1980), p. 50, 67
  105. ^Mugali (1975), p. 13
  106. ^abKamath (2001), p50, p67
  107. ^abDatta, Amaresh (1987).Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo.Sahitya Akademi, 1987.ISBN9788126018031.
  108. ^Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248
  109. ^The author and his work were praised by the latter-day poet Durgasimha of AD 1025 (R. Narasimhacharya 1988, p18.)
  110. ^Benjamin Lewis Rice (1985), p xv
  111. ^K. Appadurai."The place of Kannada and Tamil in India's national culture".INTAMM. Archived fromthe originalon 15 April 2007.Retrieved25 November2006.
  112. ^Narasimhacharya, R. (1999).History of Kannada Language.Asian Educational Services, 1942.ISBN9788120605596.
  113. ^Sastri (1955), pp 361–2
  114. ^Narasimhacharya (1988), p20
  115. ^Sastri (1955), p361
  116. ^Nagendra, Dr. (1988)."Indian Literature".Prabhat Prakashan, 1988.
  117. ^Narasimhacharya, Ramanujapuram (1988).History of Kannada Literature: Readership Lectures.Asian Educational Services, 1988.ISBN9788120603035.andayya pure kannada.
  118. ^Hari Saravanan, V. (2014).Gods, Heroes and their Story Tellers: Intangible cultural heritage of South India.Notion Press, 2014.ISBN9789384391492.
  119. ^Rice, Edward. P (1921), "A History of Kannada Literature", Oxford University Press, 1921: 14–15
  120. ^Rice, Edward P. (1982).A History of Kannada Literature.Asian Educational Services. pp. 15, 44.ISBN9788120600638.
  121. ^Sastri (1955), p364
  122. ^"Literature in all Dravidian languages owes a great deal to Sanskrit, the magic wand whose touch raised each of the languages from a level of patois to that of a literary idiom". (Sastri 1955, p309)
  123. ^Takahashi, Takanobu. 1995. Tamil love poetry and poetics. Brill's Indological library, v. 9. Leiden: E.J. Brill, p16,18
  124. ^"The author endeavours to demonstrate that the entire Sangam poetic corpus follows the" Kavya "form of Sanskrit poetry" -Tieken, Herman Joseph Hugo. 2001. Kāvya in South India: old Tamil Caṅkam poetry. Groningen: Egbert Forsten
  125. ^J. Bucher; Ferdinand Kittel (1899).A Kannaḍa-English school-dictionary: chiefly based on the labours of the Rev. Dr. F. Kittel.Basel Mission Book & Tract Depository.
  126. ^Sastri (1955), pp 364–365
  127. ^The writing exalts the grain Ragi above all other grains that form the staple foods of much of modern Karnataka (Sastri 1955, p365)
  128. ^Moorthy, Vijaya (2001).Romance of the Raga.Abinav publications. p. 67.ISBN978-81-7017-382-3.
  129. ^Iyer (2006), p93
  130. ^Sastri (1955), p365
  131. ^Report on the administration of Mysore – Page 90 Mysore – 1864 "There is no authentic record of the casting of the first Early Canarese printing. Canarese type, but a Canarese Grammar by Carey printed at Serampore in 1817 is extant. About the same time a translation of the Scriptures was printed
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  135. ^Učida, Norihiko; Rajapurohit, B. B (2013).Kannada-English etymological dictionary(PDF).Tokyo:Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa,Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.ISBN978-4-86337-128-6.OCLC906810377.Archived(PDF)from the original on 21 October 2021.Retrieved18 November2021.
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  137. ^Muralidhara Khajane (22 August 2012)."Today's Paper / NATIONAL: 100 years on, words never fail him".The Hindu.
  138. ^Johnson Language (20 August 2012)."Language in India: Kannada, threatened at home".The Economist.Retrieved12 February2013.
  139. ^Buchanan, Francis Hamilton (1807).A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. Volume 3.London: Cadell.ISBN9781402146756.
  140. ^Naik, Vinayak K.; Naik, Yogesh (6 April 2007)."HISTORY OF KOMARPANTHS".hindu-kshatriya-komarpanth.Atom.
  141. ^"GOA ON THE THRESHOLD OF THE 20TH CENTURY"(PDF).ShodhGanga.1995.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
  142. ^Kamat, K. L."Halakki Farmers of Uttara Kannada".Kamat's Potpourri.
  143. ^Uday, Savita (18 August 2010)."Tribes of Uttara Kannada-The Halakki Tribe".Buda Folklore.
  144. ^K., Bhumika (29 October 2014)."Beauty in all its glory".The Hindu.
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  148. ^S., Kiran Kumar (17 July 2015)."The Kannada History of Maharashtra".
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  154. ^Krishnamurti (2003),p. 106.
  155. ^Studies in Indian History, Epigraphy, and Culture– By Govind Swamirao Gai, pp. 315
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