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Kassites

(Redirected fromKassite)
Not to be confused withKaysitesorKushites.
"Kassite" redirects here. For the mineral, seeKassite (mineral).


TheKassites(/ˈkæsaɪts/) were people of theancient Near East,who controlledBabyloniaafter the fall of theOld Babylonian Empirec. 1531 BCand untilc. 1155 BC(short chronology).

Kassites
Map of Iraq showing important sites that were occupied by the Kassite dynasty of Babylonia (clickable map)
Regions with significant populations
Karduniash
Languages
Kassite
Religion
Kassite religion,later subsumed intoMesopotamian religion

They gained control of Babylonia after theHittitesack ofBabylonin 1531 BC, and established a dynasty generally assumed to have been based first in that city, after a hiatus. Later rule shifted to the new city ofDur-Kurigalzu.[1]By the time of Babylon's fall, the Kassites had already been part of the region for a century and a half, acting sometimes with Babylon's interests and sometimes against.[2]There are records of Kassite and Babylonian interactions, in the context of military employment, during the reigns of Babylonian kingsSamsu-iluna(1686 to 1648 BC),Abī-ešuh,andAmmī-ditāna.[3]

The origin and classification of theKassite language,like theSumerian languageandHurrian language,is uncertain, and, also like the two latter languages, has generated a wide array of speculation over the years, even to the point of linking it toSanskrit,however like these other languages it is regarded as aLanguage Isolateand is not accepted to beSemiticorIndo-European.[4]The Kassite religion is also poorly known. The names of someKassite deitiesare known.[5]The chief gods, titular gods of the kings, wereShuqamuna and Shumaliyawhich are distinct from Sumerian, Semitic and Indo-European gods.[6]As was typical in the region, there was some cross pollination with other religions. After Babylon came within the Kassite sphere of control its city-god,Mardukwas absorbed into the Kassite pantheon.[7]

History

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Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic). Many of those tablets have not yet been published, including hundreds held in the Ottoman Museum in Istanbul.[8][9]

About 100 Kassite tablets were found at Dur-Kurigalzu.[10][11]A few inscribed building materials of Kurigalzu I were found at Kish.[12]Several tablets dated to the reign of Agum III were found at theDilmunsite ofQal'at al-Bahrain.[13]In total, about 12,000 Kassite period documents have been recovered, of which only around 10% have been published. There are also a number of building inscriptions, all but one written in Sumerian unlike the Akkadian typically used by the Kassites.[14]A number of seals have also been found.[15][16]Kudurrus,stone stele used to record land grants and related documents, provide another source for Kassite history.[17]This practice continued for several centuries after the end of the Kassite Dynasty.[18]Often situated on the surface, many were found early and made their way to museums around the world.[19]

Cylinder seal of Kassite kingKurigalzu II(c. 1332–1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105

The ancient city ofNippurwas a major focus for the Kassites. Early on, refurbishments were conducted of the various religious and administrative buildings, the first of these datable to Kurigalzu I. Major construction occurred under Kadashman-Enlil, Kudur-Enlil, and Shagarakti-Shuriash, with lesser levels of repair work under Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak.[20]Other important centers during the Kassite period wereLarsa,SipparandSusa.The Kassites were very active atUr.[21]At the site ofIsin,which had been abandoned after the time of Samsu-iluna, major rebuilding work occurred on the religious district including the temple ofGula.The work at Isin was initiated by Kurigalzu I and continued by Kadashman-Enlil I, and after a lapse, by Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak II.[22]After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin.[23]

Origins

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The origin of the Kassites is uncertain, though a number of theories have been advanced. Several suspected Kassite names are recorded in economic documents from theUr IIIperiod (c. 2112–2004 BC) in southernBabylon,but their origin is ambiguous.[24]They are thought to originate from theZagros Mountains.[25]Kassites were first reported inBabyloniain the 18th century BC, especially around the area ofSippar.The 9th year name of kingSamsu-iluna(1749–1712 BC) ofBabylon,the son ofHammurabimentions them ie. ( "Year in which Samsu-iluna the king (defeated) the totality of the strength of the army / the troops of the Kassites" ).[26]

Middle Bronze Age

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As the Babylonian empire weakened in the following years the Kassites became a part of the landscape, even at times supplying troops for Babylon.[27] The Hittites had carried off the idol of the godMarduk,but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the cityKaranduniash,re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia.

Late Bronze Age

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KassiteKudurrustele of Kassite kingMarduk-apla-iddina I.Louvre Museum.

The fall of theFirst Sealand dynastyin 1460 BC created a power vacuum which the Kassites filled. After the destruction of theMittaniby the Hittites in the early 14th century BC Assyria rose in power creating a three way power structure in the region between the Kassites, Hittites, and Assyrians with Elam exerting influence from the east and Egypt from the south. A number of theAmarna Lettersare correspondence between the respective rulers (including 14 between the Pharaoh and the Kassite ruler).[28]An International System came into place between these parties connected by widespread trade, treaties, and intermarriage between the ruling classes (especially between the Kassites and Elamites).[29][30]A typical treaties include theEgyptian–Hittite peace treaty(c.1259 BC) and the treaty between the Kassite ruler Karaindash and the Assyrian ruler Ashur-bel-nisheshu (c. 1410 BC).

At the peak of their power the Kassites, under Kurigalzu I in the mid 14h century BC, conquered Elam and sacked the capital ofSusa.[31]That ruler initiated significant building efforts in Ur and other southern Mesopotamia cities.[32]The most notable of these efforts was the construction of a new city, Dur-Kurigalzu. It contained a number of palaces and also temples to many Babylonia gods including Enlil, Ninlil, and Ninurta.[33][34]The Kassites also extended their power into the Persian Gulf, including atQal'at al-Bahrain.[35]Being in close proximity the Assyrians and Kassites often came into political and military conflict over the next few centuries. For a time in the early reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I Assyria gained ascendancy, until the Elamites under Kidin-Hutran III intervened. This period is marked by a building hiatus at Babylon, similar to the one after the fall of theFirst Babylonian dynasty.[36][37]

Iron Age

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Kassite cylinder seal, c. 16th–12th century BC.

TheElamitesof theShutrukid dynastyconquered Babylonia, carrying away theStatue of Marduk,in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state.[38]According to the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, which is not considered reliable, the last Kassite king,Enlil-nadin-ahi,was taken toSusaand imprisoned there in 1155 BC, where he also died.[39]

The annals of the Assyrian kingSennacheribdetail that on his second, eastern, campaign of 702 BC he campaigned against the land of the Kassites, that being along theDiyala Riverbetween the Jebel Hamrin and the Darband-i-Khan. The Kassites took refuge in the mountains but were brought down and resettled, in standard Assyrian practice, in Hardispi and Bit Kubatti, which were made part of the Arrapha district.[40][41][42]

Kassite kingMeli-Shipak IIon a kudurru land grant presenting his daughter Ḫunnubat-Nanaya to the goddessNanaya(pictured enthroned). The eight-pointed star seen above was Inanna-Ishtar's most common symbol. Here it is shown alongside thesolar diskof her brotherShamash(Sumerian Utu) and thecrescent moonof her fatherSin(Sumerian Nanna) on aboundary stoneof Meli-Shipak II, dating to the twelfth century BC.[i 1]

Kassite dynasty

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Main article:Kassite dynasty

The Babylonian and Assyrian king lists mention eight or nineearly Kassite rulerswhose names are not fully known and who precede the following kings.[43][44]Another Kassite king, Hašmar-galšu, is known from five inscriptions from the Nippur area.[45][46]

Ruler Reign
(short chronology)		 Comments
Agum-Kakrime ReturnsMardukstatue toBabylon
Burnaburiash I c. 1500 BC Treaty withPuzur-Ashur IIIofAssyria
Kashtiliash III Son of Burnaburiash I, Grandson of Agum-Kakrime
Ulamburiash c. 1480 BC Conquers the firstSealand Dynasty
Agum III c. 1470 BC Possible campaigns against "The Sealand" and "in Dilmun"
Karaindash c. 1410 BC Treaty withAshur-bel-nisheshuof Assyria
Kadashman-harbe I c. 1400 BC Campaign against theSuteans
Kurigalzu I c. x–1375 BC Founder ofDur-Kurigalzuand contemporary ofThutmose IV
Kadashman-Enlil I c. 1374–1360 BC Contemporary ofAmenophis IIIof theEgyptianAmarna letters
Burnaburiash II c. 1359–1333 BC Contemporary ofAkhenatenandAshur-uballit I
Kara-hardash c. 1333 BC Grandson ofAshur-uballit Iof Assyria
Nazi-Bugash c. 1333 BC Usurper "son of a nobody"
Kurigalzu II c. 1332–1308 BC Son of Burnaburiash II,Battle of SugagiwithEnlil-nirariof Assyria
Nazi-Maruttash c. 1307–1282 BC Contemporary ofAdad-nirari Iof Assyria
Kadashman-Turgu c. 1281–1264 BC Contemporary ofHattusili IIIof theHittites
Kadashman-Enlil II c. 1263–1255 BC Contemporary ofHattusili IIIof theHittites
Kudur-Enlil c. 1254–1246 BC Time ofNippurrenaissance
Shagarakti-Shuriash c. 1245–1233 BC "Non-son of Kudur-Enlil" according toTukulti-Ninurta Iof Assyria
Kashtiliashu IV c. 1232–1225 BC Deposed byTukulti-Ninurta Iof Assyria
Enlil-nadin-shumi c. 1224 BC Deposed by Elamite king Kidin-Hutran III
Kadashman-Harbe II c. 1223 BC
Adad-shuma-iddina c. 1222–1217 BC Son of Kashtiliashu IV
Adad-shuma-usur c. 1216–1187 BC Sender ofrude lettertoAššur-nirariandIlī-ḫaddâ,the kings of Assyria
Meli-Shipak II c. 1186–1172 BC Correspondence withNinurta-apal-Ekur
Marduk-apla-iddina I c. 1171–1159 BC Son of Meli-Shipak II
Zababa-shuma-iddin c. 1158 BC Defeated byShutruk-NahhunteofElam
Enlil-nadin-ahi c. 1157–1155 BC Defeated by Kutir-Nahhunte II of Elam

Note that the relative order of Kadashman-Turgu and Kadashman-Enlil II have been questioned.[47]

Kassite language

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BabylonianKudurrustele of the late Kassite period, in the reign of Kassite kingMarduk-nadin-akhi(c. 1099–1082 BC). Found nearBaghdadby the French botanistAndré Michaux(Cabinet des Médailles,Paris)

TheKassite languagehasnot been classified.The few sources consist of personal names, a few documents, and some technical terms related to horses and chariotry.[48]What is known is that their language was not related to either theIndo-Europeanlanguage group, nor toSemiticor otherAfro-Asiaticlanguages, and is most likely to have been alanguage isolate,although some linguists have proposed a link to theHurro-Urartian languagesof theArmenian highlandsandNorthern Mesopotamia.[49]

It has been suggested that several Kassite leaders boreIndo-Europeannames, and they might have had anIndo-Europeanelite similar to theMitanni.Over the centuries, however, the Kassites were absorbed into the Babylonian population. Eight among the last kings of the Kassite dynasty haveAkkadiannames. It has also been suggested that the first element inKudur-Enlil's name is derived fromElamitebut that is disputed.[50][51]

Kassite art

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Ceramics

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The Kassites produced a substantial amount of pottery.[52]It is found in many Mesopotamia cities includingEriduandTell Khaiber.Archaeologists divide it into three periods, Early Kassite (before c. 1415 BC), Middle Kassite (c. 1415–1225 BC), and Late Kassite (c. 1225–1155 BC).[53]Many small pottery kilns, generally no bigger than 2 meters in diameter with domed tops, were found in the Babylonian city ofDilbat.Goblets and wavy sided bowls are commonly found in Kassite pottery deposits. Other ceramic goods, such as traps for small animals and vessels commonly thought to be fruit stands were found also.[54]Kassite pottery deposits have been found as far away asAl Khor Islandin the Persian Gulf area.

Glass works

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Remnants of two Kassite glass beakers were found during the 1964 excavation in a (c. 800 BC)destruction layerofHasanlu,in northwestIran.The mosaic glass beakers are thought to have been heirlooms, possibly for ritual use the find spot being a temple. The panes of glass used to create these images were very brightly colored, and closer analysis has revealed that they were bright green, blue, white, and red-orange.[55]A Kassite text found atDur-Kurigalzumentions glass given to artisans for palace decoration and similar glass was found there.[56]Other similar glass dated 1500 BC was found atTell al-Rimah.[57]

Seal impressions

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See also:Cylinder Seal
Kassite cylinder seal

Seals were used widely across the Near Eastern kingdoms during the Kassite rule. They were used to mark official items and ownership.[58]The images created by these seals were unique to each seal, but many shared the same subject matter. Bearded men, religious symbols, horned quadrupeds, and fauna are often shown in these images.[59]The seals were generally made of stone, glass, or clay. The images were made by stamping or rolling the seals into wet clay.[60]

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  • Male head from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, Kassite, reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I. Iraq Museum
  • Door socket from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq. Kassite period, 14th century BCE. Sulaymaniyah Museum
  • Detail, facade of Inanna's Temple at Uruk, Kassite, 15th century BCE. Iraq Museum
  • Statue of a lion, Kassite, Iraq Museum
  • Limestone relief of a male figure from Tell al-Rimah, Iraq. Kassite. Iraq Museum
  • Terracotta plaque of a seated goddess, from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq. Kassite period. Ancient Orient Museum
  • Duck-shaped weight mentioning the name of the priest Mashallim-Marduk, Kassite, from Babylon. Ancient Orient Museum
  • Lapis Lazuli fragment with building inscriptions, Kassite, from Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum
  • Kudurru mentioning the name of the Kassite king Kurigalzu II, from Nippur, Iraq, Ancient Orient Museum
  • Babylonian cuneiform tablet with a map from Nippur, Kassite period, 1550-1450 BCE
  • Wingedcentaurhunting animals. Kassite period. Louvre Museum, reference AO 22355

See also

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References

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  1. ^Brinkman, J. A.. "1. Babylonia under the Kassites: Some Aspects for Consideration". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 1-44
  2. ^van Koppen, Frans. “THE OLD TO MIDDLE BABYLONIAN TRANSITION: HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE MESOPOTAMIAN DARK AGE.” Ägypten Und Levante / Egypt and the Levant, vol. 20, 2010, pp. 453–63
  3. ^Koppen, Frans van. "2. The Early Kassite Period". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 45-92
  4. ^Pinches, T. G. “The Question of the Kassite Language.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1907, pp. 685–685
  5. ^Malko, Helen. "The Kassites of Babylonia: A Re-examination of an Ethnic Identity". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 177-189
  6. ^Krebernik, M., and Seidl, U. (2012). "Šuqamuna und Šu/imalija." [in:]Reallexikon der Assyriologie und vorderasiatischen Archäologievol 13,p. 323-325
  7. ^Tenney, J. S. (2016).The elevation of Marduk revisited: Festivals and sacrifices at Nippur during the High Kassite period.Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 68(1), 153-180. Pg 154 note 4.
  8. ^[1]Veldhuis, Niek. "Kassite Exercises: Literary and Lexical Extracts." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 52, 2000, pp. 67–94
  9. ^Biggs, Robert D. “A Letter from Kassite Nippur.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 19, no. 4, 1965, pp. 95–102
  10. ^O. R. Gurney, Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu, Iraq, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 131–149, 1949
  11. ^O. R. Gurney, Further Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu, Sumer, vol. 9, pp. 21–34, 1953
  12. ^T. Clayden. “Kish in the Kassite Period (c. 1650-1150 B.C.).” Iraq, vol. 54, 1992, pp. 141–55
  13. ^Højlund, Flemming. Qala'at al-Bahrain/2 The central monumental buildings. Aarhus Univ. Press, 1997
  14. ^[2]Brinkman, J.A. 1976. Materials and Studies for Kassite History. Vol. 1, pt. A, Catalogue of Cuneiform Sources Pertaining to Specific Monarchs of the Kassite Dynasty. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
  15. ^[3]Donalds M Matthews, The Kassite Glyptic of Nippur, Freiburg, Switzerland / Göttingen,Germany: Universitätsverlag / Vandenhoeck Ruprecht, 1992
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  17. ^Paulus, Susanne. "10. The Babylonian Kudurru Inscriptions and their Legal and Sociohistorical Implications". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 229-244
  18. ^Brinkman, J. A. “Babylonian Royal Land Grants, Memorials of Financial Interest, and Invocation of the Divine.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 49, no. 1, 2006, pp. 1–47
  19. ^Lambert, W. G. “The Warwick Kudurru.” Syria, vol. 58, no. 1/2, 1981, pp. 173–85
  20. ^Schneider, Bernhard. "Studies Concerning the Kassite Period Ekur of Nippur: Construction History and Finds". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 146-164
  21. ^Brinkman, John Anthony. "Ur:" The Kassite Period and the Period of the Assyrian Kings "." (1969): 310-348
  22. ^Kaniuth, Kai. "18. Isin in the Kassite Period". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 492-507
  23. ^Brinkman, J. A. “Provincial Administration in Babylonia under the Second Dynasty of Isin.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 6, no. 3, 1963, pp. 233–42
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  26. ^Year Names at CDLI
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  28. ^Miller, Jared L.. "3. Political Interactions between Kassite Babylonia and Assyria, Egypt and Ḫatti during the Amarna Age". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 93-111
  29. ^Schulman, Alan R. “Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 38, no. 3, 1979, pp. 177–93
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  31. ^Frans van Koppen (2006). "Inscription of Kurigalzu I". In Mark William Chavalas (ed.). The ancient Near East: historical sources in translation. Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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  33. ^Clayden, Tim. "16. Dūr-Kurigalzu: New Perspectives". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 437-478
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  43. ^Chen, Fei (2020). Study on the Synchronistic King List from Ashur. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-9004430914.
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  49. ^Schneider, Thomas (2003)."Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen".Altorientalische Forschungen(in German)(30): 372–381.
  50. ^L. Sassmannshausen (2000). "The adaptation of the Kassites to the Babylonian Civilization". In K. Van Lerberghe and G. Voet (ed.).Languages and Cultures in Contact at the Crossroads of Civilizations in the Syro-Mesopotamia Realm.Peeters Publishers. p. 413.footnote 22.
  51. ^Brinkman, J. A. "Administration and Society in Kassite Babylonia".Journal of the American Oriental Societyvol. 124, no. 2, 2004, pp. 283–304
  52. ^Armstrong, James A. (2017). "15. Babylonian Pottery in the Kassite Period". In Bartelmus, Alexa; Sternitzke, Katja (eds.).Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites.Vol. 2. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 421–436.
  53. ^Armstrong, James A.; Gasche, Hermann (2014).Mesopotamian Pottery. A Guide to the Babylonian Tradition in the Second Millennium B.C.Mesopotamian History and Environment Series II, Memoirs IV. Ghent and Chicago: The University of Ghent and The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
  54. ^Armstrong, James A. (December 1992). "West of Edin: Tell al-Deylam and the Babylonian City of Dilbat".The Biblical Archaeologist.55(4): 221–223.doi:10.2307/3210317.JSTOR3210317.
  55. ^Marcus, Michelle I. (December 1991). "The Mosaic Glass Vessels from Hasanlu, Iran: A Study in Large-Scale Stylistic Trait Distribution".The Art Bulletin.73(4): 535–545.doi:10.2307/3045829.JSTOR3045829.
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  58. ^Yalçın, Serdar (2022). "People Praying on Stone: Identity in Kassite Babylonian Seals, ca. 1415–1155 BCE".Selves Engraved on Stone: Seals and Identity in the Ancient Near East, ca. 1415–1050 BCE.Brill. pp. 42–122.
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  1. ^Land grant to Ḫunnubat-Nanaya kudurru,Sb 23, published as MDP X 87, found with Sb 22 during the French excavations at Susa.

Sources

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  • Abraham, K. (2013). Kaštiliašu and the Sumundar Canal: A New Middle Babylonian Royal Inscription. Zeitschrift Für Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Archäologie, 103(2), 183–195.https://doi.org/10.1515/za-2013-0012
  • Almamori, Haider Oraibi and Bartelmus, Alexa. "New Light on Dilbat: Kassite Building Activities on the Uraš Temple “E-Ibbi-Anum” at Tell al-Deylam "Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 111, no. 2, 2021, pp. 174–190
  • K. Balkan,Die Sprache der Kassiten,(The Language of the Kassites),American Oriental Series,vol. 37, New Haven, Conn., 1954.
  • Bass, George F., et al. "The Bronze Age Shipwreck at Ulu Burun: 1986 Campaign." American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 93, no. 1, 1989, pp. 1–29
  • Brinkman, J. A.. "The Names of the Last Eight Kings of the Kassite Dynasty" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 59, no. Jahresband, 1969, pp. 231–246
  • Brinkman, J. A. “Mu-Ús-Sa Dates in the Kassite Period.” Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 6, no. 2, 1971
  • Ferrara, A. J. “A Kassite Cylinder Seal from the Arabian Gulf.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 225, 1977, pp. 69–69
  • Albrecht Goetze, "The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology,"Journal of Cuneiform Studies,vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 97–101, 1964
  • A. Leo Oppenheim,Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization,1964.
  • Walter Sommerfield,The Kassites of Ancient Mesopotamia: Origins, Politics, and Culture,vol 2 of J. M. Sasson ed.Civilizations of the Ancient Near East,Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995
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