Kerala(English:/ˈkɛrələ/ⓘ/KERR-ə-lə;Malayalam:[keːɾɐɭɐm]ⓘ), is astateon theMalabar CoastofIndia.[16]It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of theStates Reorganisation Act,by combiningMalayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions ofCochin,Malabar,South Canara,andTravancore.[17][18]Spread over 38,863 km2(15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the 14thsmallest Indian state by area.It is bordered byKarnatakato the north and northeast,Tamil Naduto the east and south, and theLakshadweep Sea[19]to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the2011 census,Kerala is the13th-largest Indian state by population.It is divided into 14districtswith the capital beingThiruvananthapuram.Malayalamis the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.[20]
| Person | Malayāḷi, Kēraḷīyaṉ |
|---|---|
| People | Malayāḷikaḷ, Kēraḷīyaṟ |
| Language | Malayāḷam |
TheChera dynastywas the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. TheAy kingdomin the deep south and theEzhimala kingdomin the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of theCommon Era(CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000BCE.[21]The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works ofPlinyas well as thePeriplusaround 100CE.In the 15th century, thespice tradeattractedPortuguesetraders to Kerala, and paved the way forEuropean colonisationof India. At the time ofIndian independence movementin the early 20th century, there were two majorprincely statesin Kerala:TravancoreandCochin.They united to form the state ofThiru-Kochiin 1949. TheMalabar region,in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of theMadras provinceofBritish India,which later became a part of theMadras Statepost-independence. After theStates Reorganisation Act, 1956,the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging theMalabar districtofMadras State(excludingGudalur talukofNilgiris district,LakshadweepIslands,Topslip,theAttappadiForest east of Anakatti), the taluk ofKasaragod(nowKasaragod District) inSouth Canara,and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks ofKanyakumari district,and Shenkottai taluks).[18]
Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highestHuman Development Index(HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highestliteracyrate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India;[11]the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highestsex ratio,1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is theleast impoverished statein India according toNITI Aayog's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard andReserve Bank of India'sHandbook of Statistics on Indian Economy.[22][23]Kerala is thesecond-most urbanised major statein the country with47.7% urban populationaccording to the2011 Census of India.[24]The state topped in the country to achieve theSustainable Development Goalsaccording to the annual report ofNITI Aayogpublished in 2019.[25]The state has thehighest media exposure in Indiawith newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainlyMalayalamand sometimesEnglish.Hinduismis practised by more than half of the population, followed byIslamandChristianity.
In 2019–20, theeconomy of Keralawas the8th-largestin India with₹8.55 trillion(US$99 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of₹222,000(US$2,600).[26] In 2019–20, thetertiary sectorcontributed around 65% to state'sGSVA,while theprimary sectorcontributed only 8%.[27]The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to theArab states of the Persian Gulfduring theGulf Boomof the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly onremittancesfrom a largeMalayaliexpatriate community. The production ofpepperandnatural rubbercontributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector,coconut,tea,coffee,cashewand spices are important. The state is situated betweenArabian Seato the west andWestern Ghatsmountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world byNational Geographic Traveler,[28]Kerala is one of the prominenttourist destinationsof India, withcoconut-lined sandy beaches,backwaters,hill stations,Ayurvedic tourismandtropicalgreenery as its major attractions.
Etymology
The wordKeralais first recorded asKeralaputo('son ofChera[s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by theMaurya emperorAshoka(274–237 BCE), one ofhis edictspertaining to welfare.[29]At that time, one of three states in the region was calledCheralamin Classical Tamil:CheraandKeraare variants of the same word.[30]The wordCheralrefers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from theOld Tamilword for 'lake'.[31]Keralammay stem from the ClassicalTamilcherive-alam'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'[32]orchera alam'land of the Cheras'. Onefolk etymologyderivesKeralafrom theMalayalamwordkera'coconut tree' andalam'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',[33]which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.[34]Kerala was alternatively calledMalabarin theforeign trade circles.From the time ofCosmas Indicopleustes(6th century CE) itself, theArabsailors used to call Kerala asMale.
History
This sectionmay betoo longto read and navigate comfortably.(February 2025) |
Traditional sources
According to the Sangam classicPurananuru,theCherakingSenkuttuvanconquered the lands betweenKanyakumariand theHimalayas.[35]Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it.[35][36]According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology workKeralolpathi,the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sageParashurama,the sixthavatarofVishnu(hence, Kerala is also calledParashurama Kshetram'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology).[37]Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended fromGokarnatoKanyakumari.[38]The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake KingVasuki,who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land.P. T. Srinivasa Iyengartheorised, thatSenguttuvanmay have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers.[39]
Another much earlierPuraniccharacter associated with Kerala isMahabali,anAsuraand a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against theDevas,driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before LordVishnu,who took his fifth incarnation asVamanaand pushed Mahabali down tonetherworldto placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during theOnamfestival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.[40]TheMatsya Purana,among the oldest of the 18Puranas,[41][42]uses theMalaya Mountainsas the setting for the story ofMatsya,the firstincarnationof Vishnu, andManu,the first man and the king of the region.[43][44]Poovaris often identified with biblicalOphirregion, known for its wealth.[45]
Pre-history
A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area nearChanganassery,thus supporting the hypothesis.[46]Pre-historical archaeological findings includedolmensof theNeolithicera in theMarayurarea of theIdukki district,which lie on the eastern highland made byWestern Ghats.They are locally known as "muniyara", derived frommuni(hermitorsage) andara(dolmen).[47]Rock engravings in theEdakkal Caves,inWayanaddate back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE.[48][49]Archaeological studies have identifiedMesolithic,Neolithic andMegalithicsites in Kerala.[50]The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from thePaleolithicAge, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages.[51]Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation;[52]historians suggest a possible relationship withIndus Valley civilisationduring the lateBronze Ageand earlyIron Age.[53]
Ancient period
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according toSumerianrecords and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[54][55]: 79 Kerala's spices attracted ancientArabs,Babylonians,AssyriansandEgyptiansto theMalabar Coastin the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.Phoeniciansestablished trade with Kerala during this period.[56]ArabsandPhoenicianswere the first to enter Malabar Coast to tradeSpices.[56]The Arabs on the coasts ofYemen,Oman,and thePersian Gulf,must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and othereastern countries.[56]They must have brought theCinnamonof Kerala to theMiddle East.[56]The Greek historianHerodotus(5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[56]
It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera kingUthiyan Cheralathanruled most of modern Kerala from his capital inKuttanad,[57][58]and controlled the port ofMuziris,but its southern tip was in the kingdom ofPandyas,[59]which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources asNelcynda(orNeacyndi) inQuilon.[60]Tyndiswas a major centre of trade, next only toMuziris,between the Cheras and theRoman Empire.[61]The lesser knownAysandMushikaskingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively.[62][63]Pliny the Elder(1st century CE) states that the port ofTyndiswas located at the northwestern border ofKeprobotos.[64]TheNorth Malabarregion, which lies north of the port atTyndis,was ruled by the kingdom ofEzhimaladuringSangam period.[17]The port atTyndiswhich was on the northern side ofMuziris,as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere aroundKozhikode.[17]Its exact location is a matter of dispute.[17]The suggested locations arePonnani,Tanur,Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu,andKoyilandy.[17]
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[65]The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE.[66][67][68]Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, asHerodotus(484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden.[69]In the 4th century, theKnanayaor Southist Christians also migrated fromPersiaand lived alongside the earlySyriac Christiancommunity known as theSaint Thomas Christianswho trace their origins to the evangelistic activity ofThomas the Apostlein the 1st century.[70][71]
Early medieval period
A secondChera Kingdom(c. 800–1102), also known asKulasekhara dynastyof Mahodayapuram (present-dayKodungallur), was established byKulasekhara Varman,[73]which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region fromNagercoiltoThiruvallawas ruled byAy kings,who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire.[74][75]Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and theBhakti movementof Hinduism.[76]AKeraliteidentity, distinct from theTamils,became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century.[77]The origin ofMalayalam calendardates back to year 825 CE.[78][79][80]For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule ofNaduvazhis,with each province comprising a number ofDesamsunder the control of chieftains, called asDesavazhis.[76]Mamankam festival,which was the largest native festival, was held atTirunavayanearKuttippuram,on the bank of riverBharathappuzha.[81][17]Athavanad,the headquarters ofAzhvanchery Thamprakkal,who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of theNambudiriBrahminsof Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.[81][17]
Sulaiman al-Tajir,aPersianmerchant who visited Kerala during the reign ofSthanu Ravi Varma(9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala andChinaat that time, based at the port ofKollam.[82]A number of foreign accounts have mentioned the presence of considerableMuslimpopulation in the coastal towns. Arab writers such asAl-MasudiofBaghdad(896–956 CE),Muhammad al-Idrisi(1100–1165 CE),Abulfeda(1273–1331 CE), andAl-Dimashqi(1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[83]Some historians assume that theMappilascan be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community inSouth Asia.[84][85]The known earliest mention aboutMuslimsof Kerala is in theQuilon Syrian copper plates.[72]
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions,BuddhismandJainism,to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers ofJainism.[86]The social system became fractured with divisions oncastelines.[87]Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack ofLater PandyasandLater Cholas.[74]However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southernVenadkingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.
Early modern period
The maritimespice trademonopoly in theArabian Seastayed with the Arabs during theHighandLate Middle Ages.However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the EuropeanAge of Discovery.AfterVasco Da Gama's arrival inKappad,Kozhikodein 1498, thePortuguesebegan to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice trade in particular.[a][89][90][91]Following the discovery of sea route fromEuropetoMalabarin 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas betweenOrmusand the Malabar Coast and south toCeylon.[92][93]They established a trading centre atTangasseriinQuilonduring 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there.[94]
The ruler of theKingdom of Tanur,who was a vassal to theZamorin of Calicut,sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode.[17]As a result, theKingdom of Tanur(Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, theTanurforces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in theBattle of Cochin (1504).[81]However, the allegiance of theMappilamerchants inTanurregion still stayed under theZamorin of Calicut.[95] The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi who was allied with Kochi. WhenFrancisco de Almeidawas appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established atFort Kochi(Fort Emmanuel) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast.[96]However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces inSouth Malabar;especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known asKunjali Marakkars,which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast.[97]Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan,who is considered as the father of modernMalayalam literature,was born atTirur(Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period.[81][17]
In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in thebattle at Chaliyam Fort.[98]An insurrection at thePort of Quilonbetween theArabsand thePortugueseled to the end of the Portuguese era inQuilon.The Muslim line of Ali Rajas ofArakkal kingdom,nearKannur,who were the vassals of theKolathiri,ruled over theLakshadweepislands.[99]TheBekal FortnearKasaragod,which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 byShivappa NayakaofKeladi.[100]The Portuguese were ousted by theDutch East India Company,who during the conflicts between theKozhikodeand theKochi,gained control of the trade.[101] The arrival ofBritishonMalabar Coastcan be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of CaptainWilliam Keelingarrived at Kozhikode, using three ships.[17]It was in these ships that SirThomas Roewent to visitJahangir,the fourthMughal emperor,asBritish envoy.[17]In 1664, the municipality ofFort Kochiwas established byDutch Malabar,making it the first municipality in theIndian subcontinent,which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.[102]
The Kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin, and British influences
TheDutchin turn were weakened by constant battles withMarthanda Varmaof theTravancore Royal Familyand were defeated at theBattle of Colachelin 1741.[103]An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region.[104][105][106]In the 18th Century, Travancore King SreeAnizham Thirunal Marthanda Varmaannexed all the kingdoms up toCochinthrough military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala.[107]The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar District), along withFort Kochi,Tangasseri,andAnchuthenguin southern Kerala, came under directBritish ruleuntilIndia became independent.[108][109]Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerfulZamorinofKozhikodein the battle ofPurakkadin 1755.[110]
In 1761, the British capturedMahé,and the settlement was handed over to the ruler ofKadathanadu.[111]The British restoredMahéto the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[111]In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss ofMahé.[111]In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, andMahéwas handed over to the French in 1785.[111] In 1757, to resist the invasion of theZamorin of Kozhikode,thePalakkadRaja sought the help of theHyder AliofMysore.[112]In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – anEast India Companyally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state.[112]The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar region) includingKolathunadu,Kottayam,Kadathanadu,Kozhikode,Tanur,Valluvanad,andPalakkadwere unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the largerKingdom of Mysore.[113]His son and successor,Tipu Sultan,launched campaignsagainst the expandingBritish East India Company,resulting in two of the fourAnglo-Mysore Wars.[114][115]Tipu ultimately ceded theMalabar DistrictandSouth Kanarato the company in the 1790s as a result of theThird Anglo-Mysore Warand the subsequentTreaty of Seringapatam;both were annexed to theBombay Presidency(which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) ofBritish Indiain the years 1792 and 1799, respectively.[116][117][118]
By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or undersuzerainty.[119]Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership ofKerala Varma Pazhassi Raja,who had popular support inThalassery-Wayanadregion.[17][120][121][122][123]
As a state of the Republic of India
After India waspartitionedin 1947 intoIndiaandPakistan,TravancoreandKochi,part of theUnion of Indiawere merged on 1 July 1949 to formTravancore-Cochin.[124]On 1 November 1956, thetalukofKasargodin theSouth Kanara districtof Madras, theMalabar districtof Madras (excluding the islands ofLakshadweep), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks andSengottaitaluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form the state of Kerala under theStates Reorganisation Act.[18][125][126]ACommunist-led government underE. M. S. Namboodiripadresulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in1957.[126]It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere.[127][128][129]His government implementedlandandeducational reformswhich in turn, reducedincome inequalityin the state.[130]
Geography
The state is wedged between theLakshadweep Seaand theWestern Ghats.Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',[131]Kerala experiences humidtropical rainforest climatewith some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi)[132]and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi).[133]Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.[55]: 110 Pre-CambrianandPleistocenegeological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.[134][135]A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.[136] The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats'rain shadow.[55]: 110 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,[137]and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.[138][139]The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only nearPalakkad;hence also known Palghat,where thePalakkad Gapbreaks.[140]The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900feet)above sea level,[141]while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet).[142]Anamudiin theIdukkidistrict is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft).[123]The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed amongUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.[143]The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.[143]TheAthirappilly Falls,which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known asTheNiagaraof India.[144]It is located in theChalakudy Riverand is the largest waterfall in the state.[144]Wayanadis the solePlateauin Kerala.[145]The eastern regions in the districts ofWayanad,Malappuram(Chaliyarvalley atNilambur), andPalakkad(AttappadiValley), which together form parts of theNilgiri Biosphere Reserveand a continuation of theMysore Plateau,are known for naturalGoldfields, along with the adjoining districts ofKarnataka.[146]Minerals includingIlmenite,Monazite,Thorium,andTitanium,are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.[147]Kerala's coastal belt ofKarunagappallyis known for high background radiation fromthorium-containingmonazitesand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4mGy/yrand, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.[148]
Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,[55]: 33 and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnectedbrackishcanals, lakes,estuaries,[149]and rivers known as theKerala Backwaters.[150]Kuttanad,also known asThe Rice Bowl of Kerala,has thelowest altitude in India,and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.[151][152]The country's longest lakeVembanad,dominates the backwaters; it lies betweenAlappuzhaandKochiand is about 200 km2(77 sq mi) in area.[153]Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.[154]Kerala's44 riversinclude thePeriyar;244 kilometres (152 mi),Bharathapuzha;209 kilometres (130 mi),Pamba;176 kilometres (109 mi),Chaliyar;169 kilometres (105 mi),Kadalundipuzha;130 kilometres (81 mi),Chalakudipuzha;130 kilometres (81 mi),Valapattanam;129 kilometres (80 mi) and theAchankovil River;128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.[155]As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking indelta,they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[156]The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami,[157]and in 2018 receivedthe worst floodingin nearly a century.[158]In 2024, Kerala experienced its worstlandslidesin history.[159]
Climate
With around 120–140 rainy days per year,[160]: 80 Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of thesouthwest summer monsoonandnortheast winter monsoon.[161]Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.[161]The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of theIndian Peninsula,because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".[162]The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,[163]making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.[164][165]The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.[166][167]In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.[168]Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.[169]Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the easternIdukki districtreceive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) oforographic precipitation:the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[170]: 26, 46, 52 The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.[171]Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.[170]: 65
| Climate data for Kerala | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 30 (86) |
31 (88) |
32 (90) |
34 (93) |
34 (93) |
30 (86) |
29 (84) |
29 (84) |
29 (84) |
30 (86) |
30 (86) |
31 (88) |
34 (93) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 22 (72) |
23 (73) |
24 (75) |
25 (77) |
25 (77) |
24 (75) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
22 (72) |
22 (72) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 8.7 (0.34) |
14.7 (0.58) |
30.4 (1.20) |
109.5 (4.31) |
239.8 (9.44) |
649.8 (25.58) |
726.1 (28.59) |
419.5 (16.52) |
244.2 (9.61) |
292.3 (11.51) |
150.9 (5.94) |
37.5 (1.48) |
2,923.4 (115.1) |
| Source:[169][171] | |||||||||||||
Flora and fauna
Most of thebiodiversityis concentrated and protected in theWestern Ghats.Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century.[172]As of 2004[update],over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000flowering plantspecies; 1,272 of which areendemicto Kerala, 900 aremedicinal,and 159 arethreatened.[173]: 11 Its 9,400 km2of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2and 100 km2,respectively), and montane subtropical andtemperate(shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[173]: 12 Four of the world'sRamsar Conventionlistedwetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta,Ashtamudi Lake,Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands,and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,[174]as well as 1455.4 km2of the vastNilgiri Biosphere Reserveand 1828 km2of theAgasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.[175]Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[176]: 6–7 much of the remaining forest cover is now protected fromclearfelling.[177]Eastern Kerala's windward mountains sheltertropical moist forestsandtropical dry forests,which are common in the Western Ghats.[178][179]The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is inNilambur.[180]
Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species ofmammals(1 endemic),500 species of birds,189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species ofamphibians(36 endemic).[181]These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides,salinisation,and resource extraction. In the forests,sonokeling,Dalbergialatifolia,anjili,mullumurikku,Erythrina,andCassianumber among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants includebamboo,wild black pepper, wildcardamom,thecalamusrattanpalm, and aromatic vetiver grass,Vetiveria zizanioides.[173]: 12 Indian elephant,Bengal tiger,Indian leopard,Nilgiri tahr,common palm civet,andgrizzled giant squirrelsare also found in the forests.[173]: 12, 174–75 Reptiles include theking cobra,viper,python,andmugger crocodile.Kerala's birds include theMalabar trogon,thegreat hornbill,Kerala laughingthrush,darterandsouthern hill myna.In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such asKadu,Red Line Torpedo Barbandchoottachi;orange chromide—Etroplus maculatusare found.[182][173]: 163–65 Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State;Stygarctus keralensis.[183]
Divisions, districts and cities
The state's14 districtsare distributed among six regions:North Malabar(far-north Kerala),South Malabar(north-central Kerala),Kochi(central Kerala),Northern Travancore(south-central Kerala),Central Travancore(southern Kerala) andSouthern Travancore(far-south Kerala). The districts that serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into27 revenue subdivisionsand77 taluks,which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further subdivided into 1,674 revenue villages.[184][185]
Since the73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India,the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14District Panchayats,152Block panchayats,941Grama Panchayats,87 Municipalities,six Municipal Corporationsand oneTownship.[186] Mahé,a part of the Indianunion territoryofPuducherry,[187]though 647 kilometres (402 mi) away from it,[188]is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth.[189]
In 1664, the municipality ofFort Kochiwas established byDutch Malabar,making it the first municipality in theIndian subcontinent,which was dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.[102]The municipalities ofKozhikode,Palakkad,Fort Kochi,Kannur,andThalassery,were founded on 1 November 1866[120][121][122][123]of theBritish Indian Empire,making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality ofThiruvananthapuramcame into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign ofSree Chithira Thirunal,Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala.[190]The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence ofIndiaas well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is atKozhikodein the year 1962.[191]There are sixMunicipal corporationsin Kerala that governThiruvananthapuram,Kozhikode,Kochi,Kollam,Thrissur,andKannur.[192]TheThiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporationis the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area namedKochi UAis the largest urban agglomeration.[193]According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007,Thiruvananthapuram,Kozhikode,Kochi,Kollam,Thrissurare among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.[194]
Government and administration
The state is governed by aparliamentary systemofrepresentative democracy.Kerala has aunicamerallegislature. TheKerala Legislative Assemblyalso known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms.[195]The state elects 20 members to theLok Sabha,the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to theRajya Sabha,the upper house.[196]
TheGovernment of Keralais ademocraticallyelected body in India with thegovernoras its constitutional head and is appointed by thepresident of Indiafor a five-year term.[197]The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as thechief ministerby the governor, and the council of ministers is appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister.[197]The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by theChief Secretaryassists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by anAdditional Chief Secretaryor aPrincipal Secretary,who is usually an officer of theIndian Administrative Service(IAS). The Additional Chief Secretaries/Principal Secretaries serve as the administrative heads of the department to which they are assigned. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary, etc. assisting the Minister and theAdditional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary.
Each district has a district administrator appointed by the government called adistrict collectorfor executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known aspanchayats,for whichlocal body electionsare regularly held, govern local affairs.[198]Thejudiciaryconsists of theKerala High Courtand a system of lower courts.[199]The High Court, located in Kochi,[200]has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additionalpro temporejustices as of 2021[update].[201]The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory ofLakshadweep.[202][203]
In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by the central government.[204]The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance.[205]: 12 This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat.[206]The Acts define clear powers for these institutions.[204]For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat. These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization.[205]: 13 Currently, the state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments.[207]Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 byTransparency International,is considered the least corrupt state in India.[208][209]The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India.[210]
Kerala hosts two major political alliances: theUnited Democratic Front(UDF), led by theIndian National Congress;and theLeft Democratic Front(LDF), led by theCommunist Party of India (Marxist)(CPI(M)). As of[update]2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election,the LDF is the ruling coalition;Pinarayi Vijayanof the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, whileV. D. Satheesanof the Indian National Congress is theLeader of the Opposition.According to theConstitution of India,Kerala has aparliamentary systemofrepresentative democracy;universal suffrageis granted to residents.[211]
Economy
After independence, the state was managed as asocial democraticwelfare economy.[212]The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala modelof development "of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.[170]: 48 [213]: 1 In 2019–20, thetertiary sectorcontributed around 63% of the state'sGSVA,compared to 28% bysecondary sector,and 8% byprimary sector.[27]In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.[27]
The state'sservice sectorwhich accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based uponhospitality industry,tourism,Ayurvedaand medical services, pilgrimage,information technology,transportation,financial sector, andeducation.[214]Major initiatives under the industrial sector includeCochin Shipyard,shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries,[147]food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based uponcash crops.[215]Kerala produces a significant amount of the national output of cash crops such ascoconut,tea,coffee,pepper,natural rubber,cardamom,andcashewin India.[215]The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since the 1950s.[215]
Kerala's economy depends significantly onemigrants working in foreign countries,mainly in theArab states of the Persian Gulf,and theremittancesannually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[216]The state witnessed significant emigration during theGulf Boomof the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.[217]In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over₹1 lakh crore(US$12 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about₹7 lakh crore(US$81 billion).[218]Malappuram districthas the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.[27]A study commissioned by theKerala State Planning Board,suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.[219]
As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[220]On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.[221]Unemployment in 2007was estimated at 9.4%;[222]chronic issues areunderemployment,low employability of youth, and a low femalelabour participation rateof only 13.5%,[223]: 5, 13 as was the practice ofNokku kooli,"wages for looking on".[224]By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[225]
The state's budget of 2020–2021 was₹1.15 lakh crore(US$13 billion).[226]The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to₹674 billion(US$7.8 billion) in 2020–21; up from₹557 billion(US$6.4 billion) in 2019–20. Itsnon-tax revenues(excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached₹146 billion(US$1.7 billion) in 2020–2021.[226]However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[227]A record total of 223hartalswere observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over₹20 billion(US$230 million).[228]Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.[229]
TheKerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Boardis a government-ownedfinancial institutionin the state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.[230][231] In November 2015, theMinistry of Urban Developmentselected seven cities of Kerala for acomprehensive development programknown as theAtal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation(AMRUT).[232]A package of₹2.5 million(US$29,000) was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.[233]TheGrand Kerala Shopping Festival(GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.[234]Lulu International MallatThiruvananthapuramis the largestshopping mallin India.[235]
Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.[236]
Industries
Traditional industries manufacturing items;coir,handlooms,andhandicraftsemploy around one million people.[237]Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up inAlleppeyin 1859–60.[238]The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census bySIDBI,there are 1,468,104micro, small and medium enterprisesin Kerala employing 3,031,272 people.[239][240]TheKSIDChas promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.[241]A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction ofilmenite,kaolin,bauxite,silica,quartz,rutile,zircon,andsillimanite.[242]Other major sectors aretourism,medical sector,educational sector,banking,ship building,oil refinery,infrastructure, manufacturing,home gardens,animal husbandry andbusiness process outsourcing.
Agriculture
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.[243]Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.[244][245]Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.[246]Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least corresponding rate in India.[247]
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper[248]and accounts for 85% of thenatural rubberin the country.[249][250]Coconut,tea,coffee,cashew,and spices—including cardamom,vanilla,cinnamon,andnutmegare the main agricultural products.[55]: 74 [251][252][253][254][255]Around 80% ofIndia's export quality cashew kernels are prepared inKollam.[256]The key cash crop iscoconutand Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.[257]Around 90% of the totalCardamomproduced in India is from Kerala.[27]India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.[27]About 20% of the totalCoffeeproduced in India are from Kerala.[215]The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.[258]Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.[259]
Fisheries
With 590 kilometres (370miles) of coastal belt,[260]400,000 hectares of inland water resources[261]and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,[262]Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.[263]According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04.[264]This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.[265]During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally calledchakara.[266][267]The waters provide a large variety of fish:pelagic species;59%,demersal species;23%,crustaceans,molluscsand others for 18%.[265]Around 1050,000(1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590-kilometre (370-mile) coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.
Transportation
Roads
Kerala has 331,904 kilometres (206,236 mi) of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.[27][268]This translates to about 9.94 kilometres (6.18 mi) of road per thousand people, compared to an average of 4.87 kilometres (3.03 mi) in the country.[27][268]Roads in Kerala include 1,812 kilometres (1,126 mi) of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, 4,342 kilometres (2,698 mi) of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, 27,470 kilometres (17,070 mi) of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, 33,201 kilometres (20,630 mi) of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and 158,775 kilometres (98,658 mi) of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.[269]Kottayamhas the maximum length of roads among thedistricts of Kerala,whileWayanadaccounts for minimum.[270]Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through theNH 66(previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.[271]New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced underKIIFB.[272]National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road (1,622 kilometres (1,008 mi)) connectsKanyakumaritoMumbai;it enters Kerala viaTalapadyinKasargodand passes throughKannur,Kozhikode,Malappuram,Guruvayur,Kochi,Alappuzha,Kollam,Thiruvananthapurambefore enteringTamil Nadu.[271]Palakkad districtis generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint,Walayar,is onNH 544,in the border town between Kerala andTamil Nadu,through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.[273]
TheDepartment of Public Worksis responsible for maintaining and expanding thestate highways systemand major district roads.[274]The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes theGIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.[275][276]Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.[277]National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.[278][279]The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.[280]As of 2013[update],Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.[281]
Railways
Southern Railwayzone ofIndian Railwaysoperates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts ofIdukkiandWayanad.[282]The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of theSouthern Railway;Thiruvananthapuram Railway divisionheadquartered atThiruvananthapuramandPalakkad Railway Divisionheadquartered atPalakkad.[283]Thiruvananthapuram Central(TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state.[284]Kerala's major railway stations are:
- Thiruvananthapuram Central(TVC)
- Ernakulam Junction (South)(ERS)
- Kozhikode(CLT)
- Kollam Junction(QLN)
- Thrissur(TCR)
- Palakkad Junction(PGT)
- Kannur(CAN)
- Shoranur Junction(SRR)
- Ernakulam Town(North) (ERN)
- Kottayam(KTYM)
- Chengannur(CNGR)
- Alappuzha(ALLP)
- Kochuveli(KCVL)
- KayamkulamJunction (KYJ)
- Tirur(TIR)
- Kasaragod(KGQ)
- Aluva(AWY)
- Thalassery(TLY)
Airports
Kerala has four international airports:
Kollam Airport,established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.[285]Kannurhad an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 whenTataairlines operated weekly flights betweenMumbaiand Thiruvananthapuram – stopping atGoaand Kannur.[286]Trivandrum International Airport, managed by theAirport Authority of India,is among the oldest existing airports in South India.Calicut International Airport,which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in theMalabar region.[287]Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and theseventh busiestin the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered bysolar energy[288]and has won the covetedChampion of the Earthaward, the highest environmental honour instituted by theUnited Nations.[289]Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as apublic limited company;it was funded by nearly 10,000non-resident Indiansfrom 30 countries.[290] Other than civilian airports,Kochihas a naval airport namedINS Garuda.Thiruvananthapuram International Airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of theIndian Air Force.These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.
Water transport
Kerala hastwo major ports, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports,4 of which have immigration checkpoint facilities.[291][292]The major port in the state is atKochi,which has an area of 8.27 km2.[293]TheVizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram,which is currently classified as a major port, only completed Phase I as others are under construction.[293]Other intermediate ports includeBeypore,Kollam,andAzheekal.[293]The remaining ports are classified as minor which includeManjeshwaram,Kasaragod,Nileshwaram,Kannur,Thalassery,Vadakara,Ponnani,Munambam,Manakodam,Alappuzha,Kayamkulam,Neendakara,andValiyathura.[293]TheKerala Maritime Instituteis headquartered atNeendakara,which has an additional subcentre atKodungallurtoo.[293]The state has numerousbackwaters,which are used for commercialinland navigation.Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is 1,687 kilometres (1,048 mi).[294]The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of thewater hyacinth,lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.
The 616 kilometres (383 mi) long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connectingKasaragodtoPoovar.[295]It is divided into five sections: 41 kilometres (25 mi) longKasaragod-Nileshwaramreach, 188 kilometres (117 mi) longNileshwaram-Kozhikodereach, 160 kilometres (99 mi)Kozhikode-Kottapuramreach, 168 kilometres (104 mi) longNational Waterway 3(Kottapuram-Kollamreach), and 74 kilometres (46 mi) longKollam-Vizhinjamreach.[27]TheConolly Canal,which is a part of the West-Coast Canal, connects the city ofKozhikodewithKochithroughPonnani,passing through the districts ofMalappuramandThrissur.It begins atVadakara.[296]It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of thenDistrict collectorofMalabar,H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods toKallayiPort from the hinterlands of Malabar throughKuttiadyandKorapuzhariver systems.[296]It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi throughPonnani,for more than a century.[296]Other important waterways in Kerala include theAlappuzha-ChanganasseryCanal,Alappuzha-Kottayam-AthirampuzhaCanal, andKottayam-VaikomCanal.[293]
Demographics
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1901 | 6,396,262 | — |
| 1911 | 7,147,673 | +11.7% |
| 1921 | 7,802,127 | +9.2% |
| 1931 | 9,507,050 | +21.9% |
| 1941 | 11,031,541 | +16.0% |
| 1951 | 13,549,118 | +22.8% |
| 1961 | 16,903,715 | +24.8% |
| 1971 | 21,347,375 | +26.3% |
| 1981 | 25,453,680 | +19.2% |
| 1991 | 29,098,518 | +14.3% |
| 2001 | 31,841,374 | +9.4% |
| 2011 | 33,406,061 | +4.9% |
| Source:Census of India[297] | ||
Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2,its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2.[298]As of 2011[update],Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.[299]In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one-third of the all-India average of 17.6%.[298]Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.[298]Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2,2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2,leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[300]Kerala is thesecond-most urbanised major statein the country with47.7% urban populationaccording to the2011 Census of India.[24]Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.[298]The state's 321,000 indigenous tribalAdivasis,1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[301]: 10–12
Gender
There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.[302]As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.[303]Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,[304]which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala'sGender Development Indexwas 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourablesex ratio,contributed to it.[305]
Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India; it is the only state where women outnumber men.[213]: 2 While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts, etc., these tools have still not translated into full,equal rightsfor the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influencessocial mobility.[306][307][308]
LGBT rights
Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues inIndia.[309]Kerala is one of the firststates in Indiato form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced freesex reassignment surgerythrough government hospitals.[310][311][312]Queeralais one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.[313]Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.[314]
In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "third gender"or" other gender "in government communications. Instead, the term" transgender "should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.[315][316]
Human Development Index
Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average.[318]As of 2015[update],Kerala has aHuman Development Index(HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.[10]It was 0.790 in 2007–08[319]and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.[319]Comparatively higher spending by the government onprimary level education,health careand the elimination ofpovertyfrom the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;[320][321]the report was prepared by the central government'sInstitute of Applied Manpower Research.[322][323]However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.[320]Kerala is also widely regarded as thecleanestand healthiest state in India.[324]
According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highestliteracy rate(94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In theKottayam district,the literacy rate was 97%.[325][12][326]Thelife expectancyin Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011[update].[327]Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[328]By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[225]The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.[329]These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[330][331]This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[170][332]: 48
Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition"characteristic of suchdeveloped nationsasCanada,Japan,andNorway.[213]: 1 In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60.[332]In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.[333]
In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000.[334]According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All districts except Malappuram district had fertility rates below 2. Fertility rate is highest inMalappuram district(2.2) and lowest inPathanamthitta district(1.3).[335]In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.[336]The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)[337]Transparency International (2005)[338]andIndia Today(1997).[339]Kerala has the lowesthomiciderate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.[340]In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as highersuicide rate,lower share ofearned income,child marriage,[341]complaints ofsexual harassmentand limited freedom are reported.[305]The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriages and the number of such cases is increasing in Malappuram. Child marriages are particularlyhigher among the Muslim community.[342][343]In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.[344]
In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.[345]Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,[346]and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.[347]The state was also among the lowest in theIndia State Hunger Indexnext only toPunjab.In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.[348]
Healthcare
Kerala is a pioneer in implementing theuniversal health careprogram.[349]Thesub-replacement fertilitylevel andinfant mortality rateare lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12[170][334]: 49 to 14[350]: 5 deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.[351]According to a study commissioned byLienFoundation, aSingapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.[352]However, Kerala'smorbidity rateis higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively as of 2005[update].[350]: 5 Kerala's 13.3%prevalenceoflow birth weightis higher than that of manyfirst worldnations.[334]Outbreaks ofwater-borne diseasessuch asdiarrhoea,dysentery,hepatitis,andtyphoidamong the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 millionwater wellsis an issue worsened by the lack ofsewers.[353]: 5–7 As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.[354]
TheUnited Nations Children's Fund(UNICEF) and theWorld Health Organizationdesignated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendlystate "because of its effective promotion of breastfeeding over formulas.[355][356]Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% of births being in medical facilities.[300]Ayurveda,[357]: 13 siddha,and endangered and endemic modes oftraditional medicine,includingkalari,marmachikitsaandvishavaidyam,are practised. Some occupational communities such asKaniyarwere known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[358]These propagate viagurukuladiscipleship,[357]: 5–6 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.[357]: 15 TheArya Vaidya Salaestablished byVaidyaratnam P. S. WarrieratKottakkal(about 10 km fromMalappuram) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.[359][360][361]It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.[359][360][361]
In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.[362]People in Kerala experience elevated incidence ofcancers,liverandkidneydiseases.[363]In April 2016, theEconomic Timesreported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations have stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.[364]As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the Department of Health Services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.[365]
Language
Malayalamis the official language of Kerala and one of theClassical languages of India.[367]There is a significantTamilpopulation throughout Kerala mainly inIdukki districtandPalakkad districtin which it accounts for 17.48% and 4.8% respectively of the two districts' populations.[368]TuluandKannadaare spoken mainly in the northern parts ofKasaragod district,each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.[368][369]
Religion
Religion in Kerala(2011)[370]
Kerala is very religiously diverse withHindus,MuslimsandChristianshaving a significant population throughout the state. Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India.[371][372]Hinduismis the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significantMuslimandChristianminorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively littlesectarianism.[373]According to2011 Census of Indiafigures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.[374]Hindusrepresent the biggest religious group in all districts exceptMalappuram,where they are outnumbered by Muslims.[375]Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.[376]As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total childbirths in the state, respectively.[377]
Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the largerIndian Oceanrim, via spice and silk traders from theMiddle East.Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.[378][379]Notable has been the occurrence ofCheraman Perumal Tajuddin,the mythical Hindu king who moved toArabiato meetMuhammadand converted to Islam.[380][381][382]Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as theMappilas.Mappilas are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala.[383][384]According to theLegend of Cheraman Perumals,the first Indian mosque was built in 624CEatKodungallurwith the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) ofChera dynasty,who converted to Islam during the lifetime ofMuhammad(c. 570–632).[385][386][84][387]
Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival ofThomas the Apostle,one of theTwelve ApostlesofJesusChrist.[70][388][389][390]Saint Thomas ChristiansincludeSyro-Malabar Catholic,[391]Syro-Malankara Catholic,[392]Jacobite Syrian Christian Church,[393]Mar Thoma Syrian Church,[394]Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church,[395]theSyrian Anglicansof theCSI[396]andPentecostal Saint Thomas Christians.[397]The origin of theLatin CatholicChristians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the PortuguesePadroadoin the 16th century.[398][399][400]As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community ofAnglo-Indiansin Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.[401]
Judaismreached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time ofKing Solomon.[402]They are calledCochin Jewsor Malabar Jews and are the oldest group ofJews in India.[66][403]There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of themmigrated to Israel.[404]TheParadesi SynagogueatKochiis the oldest synagogue in theCommonwealth.[405]Jainismhas a considerable following in theWayanad district.[406][407]
Education
TheKerala school of astronomy and mathematicsflourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, includingseries expansionfor trigonometric functions.[408][409]In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of theChurch Mission Societymissionaries to promote mass education.[410][411][412][413][414]Following the recommendations of theWood's despatchof 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system ofgrant-in-aidto attract more private initiatives.[415]Catholic institutions such asSt Thomas College ThrissurandSB College Changanasserrywere established under the leadership of the Catholic Church. The efforts by leaders such asFr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara,Mar Charles Lavigne SJ,Vaikunda Swami,Narayana GuruandAyyankaliin aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations likeNair Service Society,SNDP,Muslim Educational Society,Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.[415]
In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.[416]In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.[417]As of 2007[update],enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.[418]According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.[326]In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through itsAthulyamliteracy programme.[419]
The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as4+3+3,which signifies the number of years for each stage.[418]After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll inHigher Secondary Schoolingin one of the three major streams—liberal arts,commerce, or science.[420]The majority of public schools are affiliated with theKerala Board of Public Examination.[421]Other educational boards are theIndian Certificate of Secondary Education(ICSE), theCentral Board for Secondary Education(CBSE), and theNational Institute of Open Schooling(NIOS).[420]
Culture
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part ofIndian culture.[422]It is a synthesis ofAryan,Dravidian,Arab,andEuropeancultures,[423]developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.[424]It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by theMalayali people.[425]It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.[426]However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.[422]Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.[427]TheMalayalam calendar,a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,[428]finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.[429]Malayalam,one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala'sofficial language.[430]Over a dozen otherscheduled and unscheduled languagesare also spoken.[366]Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.[431]
Festivals
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.[432]A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.[433]Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being theThrissur Pooram.[434]"Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.[435]Other known festivals areMakaravilakku,[436]Chinakkathoor Pooram,Attukal PongalaandNenmara Vallangi Vela[437]Other than these, festivals locally known asutsavamsare conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.[438]Processions often include traditional music such asPanchari melamorPanchavadyam.[439]Eid al-FitrandEid al-Adhaare celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals likeChristmasandEasterare observed by the Christians.[17]Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.[440][441]It is a local festival of Kerala[442]consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.[443]Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)[444]and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of KingMahabali.[445]The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such asVallam Kali,[446]Pulikali,[447]Pookkalam,[448]Thumbi Thullal[449]andOnavillu.[450]
Music and dance
Kerala is home to a number ofperformance arts.These include five classical dance forms:Kathakali,Mohiniyattam,Koodiyattom,ThullalandKrishnanattam,which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.[451]Kerala natanam,Thirayattam,[452]Kaliyattam,Theyyam,KoothuandPadayaniare other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.[453]Some traditional dance forms such asOppanaandDuffmuttuwere popular among the Muslims of the state,[454]whileMargamkaliandParichamuttukaliare popular among the Syrian Christians andChavittu nadakomis popular among the Latin Christians.[455][456]The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.[457]The development of the indigenous classical music form,Sopana Sangeetham,illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.[457]Carnatic musicdominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result ofSwathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[426]Raga-based renditions known assopanamaccompanykathakaliperformances.[458]Melam,including thepaandiandpancharivariants, is a more percussive style of music;[459]it is performed atKshetram-centered festivals using thechenda.Panchavadyamis a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instruments.[459]Kerala's visual arts range fromtraditional muralsto the works ofRaja Ravi Varma,the state's most renowned painter.[457]Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes;Vadakkan Pattukal(Northern Ballads),Thekkan pattukal(Southern Ballads),Vanchi pattukal(Boat Songs),Mappila Pattukal(Muslim songs) andPallipattukal(Church songs) are a few of them.[460]
Cinema
Malayalam filmscarved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.[461][462]Directors from Kerala, likeAdoor Gopalakrishnan,Mankada Ravi Varma,G. Aravindan,Bharathan,P. Padmarajan,M.T. Vasudevan Nair,K.G. George,Priyadarshan,John Abraham,Ramu Karyat,K S Sethumadhavan,A. VincentandShaji N Karunhave made a considerable contribution to the Indianparallel cinema.Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such asMohanlal,Mammootty,Satyan,Prem Nazir,Madhu,Sheela,Sharada,Miss Kumari,Jayan,Adoor Bhasi,Seema,Bharath Gopi,Thilakan,Vijaya Raghavan,Kalabhavan Mani,Indrans,Shobana,Nivin Pauly,Sreenivasan,Urvashi,Manju Warrier,Suresh Gopi,Jayaram,Murali,Shankaradi,Kavya Madhavan,Bhavana Menon,Prithviraj,Parvathy,Jayasurya,Dulquer Salmaan,Oduvil Unnikrishnan,Jagathy Sreekumar,Nedumudi Venu,KPAC Lalitha,InnocentandFahadh Faasil.Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.[463]Since the 1980s, actorsMohanlalandMammoottyhave dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting.[464]Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such asK. J. Yesudas,K.S. Chitra,M.G. Sreekumar,Vayalar Rama Varma,V. Madhusoodanan Nair,M.T. Vasudevan NairandO.N.V. Kurup,[465]the last two mentioned being recipients ofJnanpith award,the highest literary award in India.[466]Resul Pookutty,who is from Kerala, is the only Indian to win anAcademy Award for Best Sound Mixing,for the breakthrough filmSlumdog Millionaire.As of 2018,Malayalam cinemahas got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in theNational Film Awards,India.[467]
Literature
TheSangam literaturecan be considered as the ancient predecessor ofMalayalam.[468]Malayalam literaturestarts from theOld Malayalamperiod (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-centuryNiranam poets(Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar),[469][470]and the 16th-century poetThunchaththu Ezhuthachan,whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry.[471]For the first 600 years ofMalayalam calendar,the literature mainly consisted of the oralBalladssuch asVadakkan PattukalinNorth MalabarandThekkan PattukalinSouthern Travancore.[472]Designated a "Classical Language in India"in 2013,[367]it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poetsCherusseri Namboothiri,[473][474]Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan,[474]andPoonthanam Nambudiri,[474][475]in the 15th and the 16th centuries ofCommon Era.[474][476]Unnayi Variyar,[477]a probable poet of the 17th/18th century CE, andKunchan Nambiar,a poet of the 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form.[474]TheBharathappuzhariver, also known asRiver Ponnani,and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.[478]
Paremmakkal Thoma KathanarandKerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuranare noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose.[479][480][481]The "triumvirate of poets"(Kavithrayam):Kumaran Asan,Vallathol Narayana Menon,andUlloor S. Parameswara Iyer,are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a morelyricalmode.[482][483][484]The poets likeMoyinkutty VaidyarandPulikkottil Hyderhave made notable contributions to theMappila songs,which is a genre of theArabi Malayalamliterature.[485][486]The first travelogue in any Indian language is the MalayalamVarthamanappusthakam,written byParemmakkal Thoma Kathanarin 1785.[487][488]The prose literature,Malayalam journalism,and criticism began after the latter-half of the 18th century.[487]Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towardspolitical radicalism.[489]Malayalam literaturehas been presented with 6Jnanapith awards,the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.[490][491]In the second half of the 20th century,Jnanpithwinning poets and writers likeG. Sankara Kurup,S. K. Pottekkatt,Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai,M. T. Vasudevan Nair,O. N. V. Kurup,andAkkitham Achuthan Namboothiri,had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.[492][493][494][495][496]Later, writers likeO. V. Vijayan,Kamaladas,M. Mukundan,Arundhati Roy,Vaikom Muhammed Basheer,have gained international recognition.[497][498][499][500]
Cuisine
Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.[501]Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.[502]A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (idli,dosa,puttu,pathiri,appam,oridiyappam),tapiocapreparations, or pulse-basedvada.[503]These may be accompanied bychutney,kadala,payasam,payarpappadam,appam,chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.[251]PorottaandBiryaniare also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes includerice and curryalong withrasam,pulisherryandsambar.[504]Sadhyais a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.[505]Popular snacks includebanana chips,yam crisps,tapioca chips,Achappam,Unni appamandkuzhalappam.[506][507][508]Seafood specialties includekarimeen,prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.[509]Thalassery Cuisineis varied and is a blend of many influences.
Media
The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by theTelecom Regulatory Authority of India(TRAI).[510]The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with thehighest media exposure in India.[511]Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,[512]but principally Malayalam and English.[513]Kerala has thehighest media exposure in India.[514][515]The most widely circulatedMalayalam-language newspapersareMalayala Manorama,Mathrubhumi,Deshabhimani,Madhyamam,Kerala Kaumudi,Mangalam,Chandrika,Deepika,Janayugam,Janmabhumi,Siraj DailyandSuprabhaatham.Major Malayalam periodicalsincludeMathrubhumi Azhchappathippu,Vanitha,India TodayMalayalam,Madhyamam Weekly,Grihalakshmi,Dhanam,ChithrabhumiandBhashaposhini.
DD Malayalamis a state-owned television broadcaster.Multiple-system operatorsprovide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian languages, and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels areAsianet,Asianet News,Asianet Plus,Asianet Movies,Surya TV,Surya Movies,Mazhavil Manorama,Manorama News,Kairali TV,Kairali News,Flowers,Media One TV,Mathrubhumi News,Kappa TV,Amrita TV,Reporter TV,Jaihind,Janam TV,Jeevan TV,Kaumudy TVandShalom TV.With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India,[516]Digital mediasincludingSocial mediasandOTT servicesare a main source of information and entertainment in the state. A sizeablePeople's science movementhas taken root in the state, and such activities as writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.[213][517]BSNL,Airtel,Vodafone Idea Limited,Jioare the major cell phone service providers.[518]Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the majorISPsareBSNL,Asianet Satellite Communications,Reliance Communications,Airtel,Vodafone Idea Limited,MTS,RailWireandVSNL.
Sports
By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala had either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; includingPoorakkali,Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.[519]However,Kalaripayattu,regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.[520]Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race ofSnake boats.[519]
Cricketandfootballbecame popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, likeTinu Yohannan,Abey Kuruvilla,Chundangapoyil Rizwan,Sreesanth,Sanju SamsonandBasil Thampifound places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, theKochi Tuskers,played in theIndian Premier League'sfourth season.However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises.[521][522]Kerala has only performed well recently in theRanji Trophycricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history.[519][523]Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hostsKerala Blasters FCin theIndian Super League.The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most-followed football club fromAsiain social media.[524][525][526]Also, Kozhikode hostsGokulam Kerala FCin theI-Leagueas well as theSait Nagjee Football Tournament.Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players likeI. M. Vijayan,C. V. Pappachan,V. P. Sathyan,U. Sharaf Ali,Jo Paul Ancheri,Ashique Kuruniyan,Muhammad Rafi,Jiju Jacob,Mashoor Shereef,Pappachen Pradeep,C.K. Vineeth,Anas Edathodika,Sahal Abdul Samad,andRino Anto.[527][528][529][530][531]The Kerala state football team has won theSanthosh Trophyseven times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, 2018, and 2022. They were also the runners-up eight times.[532]
Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state areP. T. Usha,Shiny WilsonandM.D. Valsamma,all three of whom are recipients of thePadma Shrias well asArjuna Award,whileK. M. BeenamolandAnju Bobby GeorgeareRajiv Gandhi Khel Ratnaand Arjuna Award winners.T. C. Yohannan,Suresh Babu,Sinimol Paulose,Angel Mary Joseph,Mercy Kuttan,K. Saramma,K. C. Rosakutty,Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.[519][533]Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast.[534]Jimmy Georgewas a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.[535]Other popular sports includebadminton,basketballandkabaddi.[536]The Indian Hockey team captainP. R. Shreejesh,ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state includeK. T. Irfan.[537]
For the2017 FIFA U-17 World CupinIndia,theJawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi),was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted inIndia.[538]Greenfield International Stadiumat located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including2015 SAFF Championship.[539]
Tourism
Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varieddemographics,have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012,National Geographic'sTravellermagazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"[540][541]and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".[542]Travel and Leisurealso described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".[540][543]In 2012, it overtook theTaj Mahalto be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.[544]CNN Travellisted Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.[545]Kerala was named byTIME magazinein 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.[546]
Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions[547]and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.[548]The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.[549][550]Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.[551]In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.[540]Marketing campaigns launched by theKerala Tourism Development Corporation,the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.[552]Many advertisements branded Kerala with the taglineKerala, God's Own Country.[552]Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.[552]In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.[553]In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.[554]
Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.[551]Kerala is known for itsecotourisminitiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.[555]The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to thestate's economy,growing at the rate of 13.3%.[556]The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the₹190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times[557]Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1 million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3 million from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people.[554]
The state's only drive-in beach,Muzhappilangad Beachin Kannur, which stretches across 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches in the world in 2016.[558]Idukki Dam,the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is atIdukki.The major beaches are atKovalam,Varkala,Kozhikode,Fort Kochi,Cherai,Alappuzha,Ponnani,Kadalundi,Tanur,Chaliyam,Payyambalam,Kappad,MuzhappilangadandBekal.Popularhill stationsare atPonmudi,Wayanad,Vagamon,Munnar,Peermade,Ramakkalmedu,Arimbra,PaithalmalaofKannurdistrict,Kodikuthimala,andNelliampathi.[559]Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna.[560]Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks:Periyar Tiger Reserve,Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary,Thattekad Bird Sanctuary,Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary,Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary,Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary,MuthangaWildlife Sanctuary,Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary,Eravikulam National Park,andSilent Valley National Parkare the most popular among them.[561]The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey,Kumarakom,Ponnani,Nileshwaram,andPunnamada(where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August),Pathiramanala small island inMuhamma.Padmanabhapuram Palaceand theMattancherry Palaceare two nearby heritage sites.[562][563]
See also
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One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore theTransactions of the Royal Asiatic Society,in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the serieswithoutthe calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
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Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women's education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of 'equality' into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State.
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Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, visited CMS College in Kerala, the oldest college in India, and laid the foundation stone of the bicentenary block. He said, 'CMS college is a pioneer of modern education in Kerala. It has been the source of strong currents of knowledge and critical inquiry that have moulded the scholastic and socio-cultural landscape of Kerala and propelled the State to the forefront of social development.'
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Notes
- ^According to historianM. G. S. NarayananVasco da Gama arrived inKoyilandy.[88]
Sources
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Further reading
- Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015.Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition.Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan.
- Chathukulam, Jos; Tharamangalam, Joseph (2021)."The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy".World Development.137:105207.doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207.PMC7510531.PMID32989341.
- Devika, J. (2016)."The 'Kudumbashree Woman' and the Kerala Model Woman: Women and Politics in Contemporary Kerala".Indian Journal of Gender Studies.23(3):393–414.doi:10.1177/0971521516656077.S2CID151752480.
- Jeffrey, Robin (2004)."Legacies of Matriliny: The Place of Women and the" Kerala Model ""(PDF).Pacific Affairs.77(4):647–664.JSTOR40023536.
- Jeffrey, Robin (2009)."Testing Concepts about Print, Newspapers, and Politics: Kerala, India, 1800–2009"(PDF).The Journal of Asian Studies.68(2): 465.doi:10.1017/S0021911809000679.S2CID146795894.
- Jeffrey, Robin (27 July 2016).Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model'.Springer.ISBN978-1-349-12252-3.
- Ramanathaiyer, Sundar; MacPherson, Stewart (2018).Social Development in Kerala: Illusion or Reality?(2nd ed.). Routledge.
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