Wikipedia

Khmer Empire

TheKhmer Empirewas aHindu-Buddhistempire inSoutheast Asia,centered aroundhydraulic citiesin what is now northernCambodia.Known asKambuja(Old Khmer:កម្វុជ;Khmer:កម្ពុជ) by its inhabitants, it grew out of the former civilisation ofChenlaand lasted from 802 to 1431. Historians call this period ofCambodian historytheAngkor period,after the empire's most well-known capital,Angkor.The Khmer Empire ruled or vassalised most ofmainland Southeast Asia[3]and stretched as far north assouthern China.[4][5]At its peak, the Empire was larger than theByzantine Empire,which existed around the same time.[6]

Kambuja
កម្វុជ(Old Khmer)
802–1431
Khmer Empire (Kambuja), c. 900
Khmer Empire (Kambuja),c. 900
Capital
Common languages
Religion
GovernmentMandala kingdomruled bydevarajas
Monarch
• 802–850 CE (first)
Jayavarman II
• 1113–1150
Suryavarman II
• 1181–1218
Jayavarman VII
• 1327–1336
Jayavarman IX
• 1336–1340
Trasak Paem
• 1373–1393
Thomma Saok
• 1417–1431 (last)
Ponhea Yat
Historical eraPost-classical era
•Indrapurafounded
781
802
• Construction ofAngkor Wat
1113–1150
•Sukhothaicreated
1238
•Lan Xangfounded
1353
1431
Area
1290[1][2]1,263,322 km2(487,771 sq mi)
CurrencyNative coins
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Lower Chenla
Upper Chenla
Post-Angkor Cambodia
Lan Xang
Sukhothai
Ayutthaya
Today part of

The beginning of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, whenKhmerprinceJayavarman IIdeclared himselfchakravartin(lit. 'universal ruler',a title equivalent to 'emperor') in thePhnom Kulenmountains. Although the end of the Khmer Empire has traditionally been marked with theFall of Angkorto the SiameseAyutthaya Kingdomin 1431, the reasons for the empire's collapse are still debated amongst scholars.[7]Researchers have determined that a period of strong monsoon rains was followed by a severe drought in the region, which caused damage to the empire's hydraulic infrastructure. Variability between droughts and flooding was also a problem, which may have caused residents to migrate southward and away from the empire's major cities.[8]

The site of Angkor is perhaps the empire's most notable legacy, as it was the capital during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such asAngkor Watand theBayon,bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetic achievements, and variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to the 13th centuries, was the most extensive pre-industrial urban complex in the world.[9][10]Researchers have also concluded that the Khmer Empire invented the world's first healthcare system, which included 102 hospitals.[11]

Etymology

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Modern scholars often refer to the empire as the "Khmer Empire" (Khmer:ចក្រភពខ្មែរ) or the "Angkor Empire" (Khmer:ចក្រភពអង្គរ), the latter after the capital Angkor.

The empire referred to itself asKambuja(Sanskrit:កម្ពុជ;Old Khmer:កម្វុជ;Khmer:កម្ពុជ) orKambujadeśa(Sanskrit:កម្ពុជទេស,lit. 'country of Kambuja'; Old Khmer:កម្វុជទេឝ;Khmer:កម្ពុជទេស), names which were pre-modern predecessors to the modernKampuchea.

Historiography

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No written records of the Angkor period have survived other than stone inscriptions. Current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilisation is derived primarily from:

  • Archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation
  • Stone inscriptions (the most important of which are foundation steles of temples), which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings
  • Reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of daily life, market scenes, military marches, and palace life
  • Reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders, and travellers

History

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Formation and growth

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Reign of Jayavarman II

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Temple ofBanteay Srei,built 967 AD

According to aninscription in the Sdok Kok Thom temple,[12]: 97 [13]: 353–354 around 781 the Khmer princeJayavarman IIestablishedIndrapuraas the capital of his domain. It was located inBanteay Prey Nokor,near today'sKampong Cham.[14]After returning to his home in the former kingdom ofChenla,he quickly built up his influence and defeated a series of competing kings. In 790 he became king of a kingdom calledKambujaby the Khmer. He then moved his court northwest toMahendraparvata,far inland north from the great lake ofTonlé Sap.

Jayavarman II (reigned 802–835)[15]: xiii, 59 is widely regarded as the king who set the foundations of the Angkor period. Historians generally agree that this period of Cambodian history began in 802, when Jayavarman II conducted a grandiose consecration ritual on the sacred Mount Mahendraparvata, now known asPhnom Kulen.[16]At the ritual, which was taken from theHindutradition, Jayavarman II proclaimed himself aschakravartin(from Sanskrit, commonly translated as "universal ruler"; Old Khmer:Kamraten jagad ta Raja) anddevaraja(from Sanskrit,lit. 'god king').[17]: 35 He also declared Kambuja's independence from a place inscriptions call "Java".

Historians debate whether "Java" means theIndonesian island of Java,Champaor a different location. According to an older established interpretation, Jayavarman II was a prince who lived at the court ofSailendrain Java and brought back to Cambodia the art and culture of the Javanese Sailendran court (such as the concept of adevaraja).[12]: 97–101 This classical theory was criticized by modern scholars such as Claude Jacques[18]and Michael Vickery, who noted that the Khmer used the termchveato describe theChams,their neighbours to the east.[19]But in 2013 Arlo Griffiths refuted these theories and convincingly demonstrated that in almost all cases the inscriptions mention Java they refer to the island of Java in the Indonesian archipelago.[20]

Jayavarman's political career began inVyadhapura(likely the modern-day ruins ofBanteay Prey Nokor) in eastern Cambodia. Moreover, many early temples on Phnom Kulen show Cham (e.g. Prasat Damrei Krap) as well as Javanese influences (e.g. the primitive "temple-mountain"of Aram Rong Cen and Prasat Thmar Dap), even if their asymmetric distribution seems typically Khmer.[21]

In the following years, Jayavarman II extended his territory and established a new capital,Hariharalaya,near the modern-day town ofRoluos.[12]: 98 He thereby laid the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) to the northwest. Jayavarman II died in 835[15]: 59 and was succeeded by his sonJayavarman III.[12]: 103 [22]Jayavarman III died in 877 and was succeeded byIndravarman I.[12]: 110 

The successors of Jayavarman II kept extending the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman I (reigned 877–889) managed to expand the kingdom without wars and initiated extensive building projects, which were enabled by the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the temple ofPreah Koand irrigation works. Indravarman I developed Hariharalaya further by constructingBakong[13]: 354–358 circa 881.[12]: 110–111 Bakong in particular bears striking similarities to theBorobudurtemple in Java, which suggests that it may have served as the prototype for Bakong. There were at the time exchanges of travellers and missions between Kambuja and the Sailendras in Java, which brought to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details.[23][24]

Establishment of Yasodharapura

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Bakong,one of the earliest temple mountains in Khmer architecture
Banteay Srei,a 10th-century Cambodian temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva
Ta Keo,a state temple built around the year 1000
Baphuon,a temple-mountain dedicated to Shiva

Indravarman I was followed by his sonYasovarman I(reigned 889–915), who established a new capital,Yasodharapura– the first city of the largerAngkorarea. The city's central temple was built onPhnom Bakheng,a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. TheEast Baray,a massive water reservoir measuring 7.1 by 1.7 kilometres (4.4 by 1.1 mi), was also created under the reign of Yasovarman I.[12]: 111–114 [13]: 358, 360–361 

At the beginning of the 10th century, the empire fractured. Jayavarman IV moved the capital to Lingapura (now known asKoh Ker), some 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Angkor.[13]: 360, 363 Only whenRajendravarman IIascended to the throne (reigned 944–968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He once again took up the extensive building schemes of the earlier kings and established a series of Hindu temples in the Angkor area, such asPre Rupand theEast Mebon,a temple located on an artificial island in the center of the East Baray. Several Buddhist temples and monasteries were also built.[13]: 363–367 In 950, the first war took place between Kambuja and the kingdom ofChampato the east (in what is now centralVietnam).[12]: 114–117 

The son of Rajendravarman II,Jayavarman V,reigned from 968 to 1001, after establishing himself as the new king over the other princes. His rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and a cultural flowering. He established a new capital slightly west of his father's and named it Jayendranagari; its state temple,Ta Keo,was to the south. At the court of Jayavarman V lived philosophers, scholars, and artists. New temples were also established; the most important of these wereBanteay Srei,considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the first temple of Angkor built completely ofsandstone.[12]: 117–118 [13]: 367 

The pyramid ofKoh Ker.Koh Ker (Lingapura) was briefly the capital of Kambuja.

A decade of conflict followed the death of Jayavarman V. Three kings reigned simultaneously as antagonists to each other untilSuryavarman I(reigned 1006–1050) ascended to the throne by taking the capital Angkor.[12]: 134–135 His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to overthrow him and military conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms.[25]Suryavarman I established diplomatic relations with theChola dynastyof south India early in his rule.[26]

Pyramid ofPrasat Baksei Chamkrong

In the first decade of the 11th century, Kambuja came into conflict with the kingdom ofTambralingain theMalay peninsula.[25][27]After surviving several invasions from his enemies, Suryavarman requested aid from the powerfulCholaemperorRajendra Iagainst Tambralinga.[25][28][29]After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from theSrivijayaking Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.[25][27]This eventually led to Chola coming into conflict with Srivijaya. The war ended with a victory for Chola and Kambuja, and major losses for Srivijaya and Tambralinga.[25][27]The two alliances had religious nuance, as Chola and Kambuja were HinduShaivite,while Tambralinga and Srivijaya wereMahayanaBuddhist.There is some indication that, before or after the war, Suryavarman I gifted a chariot to Rajendra I to possibly facilitate trade or an alliance.[12]: 136 [30][31]

Suryavarman I's wife wasViralakshmi,and following his death in 1050, he was succeeded byUdayadityavarman II,who built theBaphuonandWest Baray.[12]: 135, 137–138 In 1074, conflict arose betweenHarshavarman III,the younger brother and successor of Udayadityavarman II, and theChampakingHarivarman IV.[12]: 152 

Golden age of Khmer civilisation

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The Greater Angkor Region was had a population of approximately 700,000 to 900,000 at its peak in the 13th century CE.[32]This population, which made Angkor one of the most populous cities of the medieval world.

KingSuryavarman II
Angkor Wat

Reign of Suryavarman II and Angkor Wat

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Further information:Khmer–Cham wars

The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. UnderSuryavarman II(reigned 1113–1150) the kingdom united internally[15]: 113 andAngkor Wat,dedicated to the godVishnu,was built over a period of 37 years. In the east, Suryavarman II's campaigns againstChampaandDai Vietwere unsuccessful,[15]: 114 though he sackedVijayain 1145 and deposed Jaya Indravarman III.[33]: 75–76 The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out byJaya Harivarman I.[12]: 160 In 1114, Suryavarman II sent a mission to Chola and presented a precious stone to the Chola emperorKulottunga I.[34][35]

Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally, in 1177 the capital was raided and looted in anaval battle on the Tonlé Sap lakeby a Cham fleet underJaya Indravarman IV,and Khmer kingTribhuvanadityavarmanwas killed.[12]: 164 [33]: 78 

Reign of Jayavarman VII and Angkor Thom

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Portrait statue ofJayavarman VII
Bronze replica of one of the twenty-three stone images sent by King Jayavarman VII to different parts of his kingdom in 1191
TheBayon,the state temple located at the center of Jayavarman VII's capital, Angkor Thom

KingJayavarman VII(reigned 1181–1219) was generally considered[according to whom?]Cambodia's greatest king. He had already been a military leader as a prince under the previous kings. After Champa had conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and retook the capital. He consequently ascended to the throne and continued to wage war against Champa for another 22 years, until the Khmer defeated the Chams in 1203 and conquered large parts of their territory.[12]: 170–171 [33]: 79–80 According to Chinese sources, Jayavarman VII addedPeguto the territory of the Khmer Empire in 1195.[36]

Jayavarman VII stands as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only because of his successful military campaign against Champa, but also because he was not a tyrannical ruler in the manner of his immediate predecessors.[citation needed]He unified the empire and carried out noteworthy building projects. The new capital, now calledAngkor Thom(lit. 'great city'), was built. In the centre, the king (himself a follower of Mahayana Buddhism) had constructed as the state temple the Bayon,[13]: 378–382 with towers bearing faces of theboddhisattvaAvalokiteshvara,each several metres high, carved out of stone. Further important temples built under Jayavarman VII wereTa Prohmfor his mother,Preah Khanfor his father,[13]: 388–389 Banteay Kdei,andNeak Pean,as well as the reservoir ofSrah Srang.An extensive network of roads was laid down connecting every town of the empire, with rest-houses built for travellers and a total of 102 hospitals established across his realm.[12]: 173, 176 

Reign of Jayavarman VIII

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After the death of Jayavarman VII, his sonIndravarman II(reigned 1219–1243) ascended to the throne.[12]: 180–181 Like his father, he was a Buddhist, and he completed a series of temples begun under his father's rule. As a warrior he was less successful. In 1220, under mounting pressure from the increasingly powerful Dai Viet and its ally Champa, the Khmer withdrew from many of the provinces previously conquered from the Chams.

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The Khmer Empire and contemporary Asian polities circa 1300

Indravarman II was succeeded byJayavarman VIII(reigned 1243–1295). In contrast to his predecessors, Jayavarman VIII was a follower ofHinduShaivismand an aggressive opponent of Buddhism, destroying many Buddha statues in the empire and converting Buddhist temples to Hindu temples.[15]: 133 Kambuja was threatened externally in 1283 by the Mongol-ledYuan dynasty.[37]Jayavarman VIII avoided war with generalSogetu(sometimes known as Sagatu or Sodu), the governor ofGuangzhou, China,by paying annual tribute to the Mongols, starting in 1285.[12]: 192 [37]Jayavarman VIII's rule ended in 1295 when he was deposed by his son-in-lawSrindravarman(reigned 1295–1309). The new king was a follower ofTheravada Buddhism,a school of Buddhism that had arrived insoutheast AsiafromSri Lankaand subsequently spread through most of the region.

In August 1296, the Chinese diplomatZhou Daguanarrived in Angkor and recorded, "In the recent war with the Siamese, the country was utterly devastated".[12]: 211 [33]: 90 He remained at the court of Srindravarman until July 1297. He was neither the first nor the last Chinese representative to visit Kambuja. His stay is notable, however, because Zhou later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor. His portrayal of the empire is today one of the most important sources of understanding historical Angkor. Alongside the descriptions within several great temples (the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat), his account informs us that the towers of the Bayon were once covered ingold;the text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and habits of the inhabitants of Angkor.

Decline

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By the 14th century, Kambuja had suffered a long, arduous, and steady decline. Historians have proposed different causes for the decline: the religious conversion fromVishnuite-Shivaite HinduismtoTheravada Buddhismthat affected social and political systems, incessant internal power struggles among Khmer princes,vassalrevolt, foreign invasion, plague, and ecological breakdown.

For social and religious reasons, many aspects contributed to the decline of Kambuja. The relationship between the rulers and their elites was unstable– among the 27 rulers of Kambuja, eleven lacked a legitimate claim to power, and violent power struggles were frequent. Kambuja focused more on its domestic economy and did not take advantage of the international maritime trade network. The input of Buddhist ideas also conflicted with and disturbed the state order built under Hinduism.[38]

Conversion from Hinduism to Buddhism

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11th-century Khmer sculpture of the Buddha

The last Sanskrit inscription is dated 1327 and describes the succession ofIndrajayavarmanby Jayavarmadiparamesvara.[12]: 228 Historians suspect a connection with the kings' adoption of Theravada Buddhism: the kings were no longer considereddevarajas(god kings) and there was therefore no need to erect huge temples to them, or rather to the gods under whose protection they stood.[citation needed]The retreat from the concept of thedevarajamay also have led to a loss of royal authority and thereby to a lack of workers.[speculation?]Thewater-managementapparatus also degenerated, meaning that harvests were reduced by floods or drought. While previously threericeharvests per year were possible– a substantial contribution to the prosperity and power of Kambuja– the declining harvests further weakened the empire.

Looking at the archaeological record, however, archaeologists noticed that not only were the structures ceasing to be built, but the Khmer's historical inscription was also lacking from the 14th to 17th centuries. With this lack of historical content, there is very limited archaeological evidence to work with. However, archaeologists have been able to determine that the sites were abandoned and then reoccupied later by different people.[39]

Foreign pressure

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Seated Buddha from the 12th century

TheAyutthaya Kingdomarose from a confederation of three city-states on the Lower Chao Phraya basin (Ayutthaya-Suphanburi-Lopburi).[40]From the fourteenth century onward, Ayutthaya became Kambuja's rival.[12]: 222–223 Angkor was besieged by the Ayutthayan kingUthongin 1352, and following its capture the next year, the Khmer king was replaced with successive Siamese princes. Then in 1357, the Khmer kingSuryavamsa Rajadhirajaretook the throne.[12]: 236 In 1393, the Ayutthayan kingRamesuanbesieged Angkor again, capturing it the next year. Ramesuan's son ruled Kambuja for a short time before being assassinated. Finally, in 1431, the Khmer kingPonhea Yatabandoned Angkor as indefensible, and moved to thePhnom Penharea.[12]: 236–237 

The new centre of the Khmer kingdom was in the southwest, atOudongnear present-day Phnom Penh. However, there are indications that Angkor was not completely abandoned. One line of Khmer kings may have remained there, while a second moved to Phnom Penh to establish a parallel kingdom. The final fall of Angkor would then be due to the transfer of economic– and therewith political– significance, as Phnom Penh became an important trade centre on theMekong.Severe droughts and ensuing floods were considered one of the contributing factors to its fall.[41]The empire focused more on regional trade after the first drought.[42]

Ecological breakdown

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A satellite image of Angkor. The driedEast Barayindicates environmental changes in the region.

Ecological failure and infrastructural breakdown is an alternative theory regarding the end of Kambuja. Scientists working on the Greater Angkor Project believe that the Khmers had an elaborate system of reservoirs and canals used for trade, transportation, and irrigation. The canals were used for harvesting rice. As the population grew there was more strain on the water system. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there were also severe climatic changes impacting the water management system.[41]

Periods of drought led to decreases in agricultural productivity, and violent floods due to monsoons damaged the infrastructure during this vulnerable time.[41]To adapt to the growing population, trees were cut down from the Kulen hills and cleared out for more rice fields. That created rain runoff carrying sediment to the canal network. Any damage to the water system would have enormous consequences.[43]

Plague

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Theplaguetheory, which suggests a severeepidemicoutbreak may have hit the heavily populated Angkor and contributed to the fall of the empire, has been reconsidered.[44]By the 14th century, theBlack Deathhad affected Asia, as the plague first appeared in China around 1330 and reached Europe around 1345. Most seaports along the line of travel from China to Europe felt the impact of the disease, which might have had a severe impact on life throughout Southeast Asia. Possible diseases includebubonic plague,smallpoxandmalaria.

Angkor after the 15th century

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There is evidence for a further period of use of Angkor after the 15th century. Under the rule of Khmer kingBarom Reachea I(reigned 1566–1576), who temporarily succeeded in driving back Ayutthaya, the royal court was briefly returned to Angkor. Inscriptions from the 17th century testify toJapanesesettlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer.[45]The best-known inscription tells ofUkondayu Kazufusa,who celebrated theKhmer New Yearin Angkor in 1632.[46]However, in the following decades the Japanese community was absorbed into the local Khmer community, owing to a lack of new Japanese arrivals and thus little possibility of renewing their community.[45]

Culture and society

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Reconstruction of theBayon,the center ofAngkor Thom

Much of what is known about Kambuja comes from the bas-reliefs of Angkor's temples and the first-hand accounts of Chinese diplomatZhou Daguan(The Customs of Cambodia), which provide information on 13th-century Cambodia and earlier. The bas-reliefs, such as those in theBayon,describe everyday life in the ancient Khmer kingdom, including scenes of palace life, naval battles on the river and lakes, and common scenes of the marketplace.

Economy and agriculture

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The ancient Khmers were a traditional agricultural community, relying heavily onrice farming.The farmers, who formed the majority of the kingdom's population, planted rice near the banks of the lake or river, in the irrigated plains surrounding their villages, or in the hills when the lowlands were flooded. The rice paddies were irrigated by a massive and complex hydraulics system, including networks of canals andbarays,or giant water reservoirs. This system enabled the formation of large-scale rice farming communities surrounding Khmer cities. Sugar palm trees, fruit trees, and vegetables were grown in the orchards by the villages, providing other sources of agricultural produce such aspalm sugar,palm wine,coconut, various tropical fruits, and vegetables.

Khmer market in the Bayon

Located by the massiveTonlé Saplake, and also near numerous rivers and ponds, many Khmer people relied on fresh water fisheries for their living. Fishing gave the population their main source of protein, which was turned intoprahok– dried or roasted or steamed fish paste wrapped in banana leaves. Rice was the main staple along with fish. Other sources of protein included pigs, cattle, and poultry, which were kept under the farmers' houses, which were elevated on stilts to protect them from flooding.

Themarketplaceof Angkor contained no permanent buildings; it was an open square where the traders sat on the ground on woven straw mats and sold their wares. There were no tables or chairs. Some traders might be protected from the sun with a simple thatched parasol. A certain type of tax or rent was levied by officials for each space occupied by traders in the marketplace. The trade and economy in the Angkor marketplace were mainly run by women.

Zhou Daguan's description of the women of Angkor:[47][48]

The local people who know how to trade are all women. So when a Chinese man goes to this country, the first thing he must do is take in a woman, partly with a view of profiting from her trading abilities.

The women age very quickly, no doubt because they marry and give birth when they are too young. When they are twenty or thirty-years-old, they look like Chinese women who are forty or fifty.

The role of women in the trade and economy of Kambuja suggests that they enjoyed significant rights and freedom.[specify]Their practice of marrying early may have contributed to the high fertility rate and huge population of the kingdom.[47]

Society and politics

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See also:Devaraja
Women of the royal court
A naval battle against theChams;relief in the Bayon
Bas-relief in the Bayon depicting home life

Kambuja was founded upon extensive networks of agriculturalrice farmingcommunities. A distinct settlement hierarchy is present in the region. Small villages were clustered around regional centres, such as the one at Phimai, which in turn sent their goods to large cities like Angkor in return for other goods, such as pottery and foreign trade items from China.[49]The king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics infrastructure, such as canals, moats, and massive reservoirs calledbarays.

Society was arranged in a hierarchy reflecting theHindu caste system,[citation needed]where the commoners– rice farmers and fishermen – formed the large majority of the population. Thekshatriyas– royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors– formed a governing elite and authorities. Other social classes includedbrahmins(priests), traders,artisanssuch as carpenters and stonemasons, potters,metalworkers,goldsmiths,and textile weavers, while on the lowest social level wereslaves.

The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult ofDevaraja,elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the incarnation ofVishnuorShiva.[50]In politics, this status was viewed as the divine justification of a king's rule. The cult enabled the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects, constructing majestic monuments such asAngkor Watand the Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.

Bas-relief in the Bayon depicting childbirth

The King was surrounded by ministers, state officials, nobles, royalties, palace women, and servants, all protected by guards and troops. The capital city of Angkor and the Khmer royal court are famous for grand ceremonies, with many festivals and rituals held in the city. Even when travelling, the King and his entourages created quite a spectacle, as described in Zhou Daguan's accounts. Zhou Daguan's description of a royal procession ofIndravarman IIIis as follows:[51]

When the king goes out, troops are at the head of [his] escort; then come flags, banners and music. Palace women, numbering from three to five hundred, wearing flowered cloth, with flowers in their hair, hold candles in their hands, and form a troupe. Even in broad daylight, the candles are lighted. Then come other palace women, bearing royal paraphernalia made of gold and silver... Then come the palace women carrying lances and shields, with the king's private guards. Carts drawn by goats and horses, all in gold, come next. Ministers and princes are mounted on elephants, and in front of them one can see, from afar, their innumerable red umbrellas. After them come the wives and concubines of the king, in palanquins, carriages, on horseback and on elephants. They have more than one hundred parasols, flecked with gold. Behind them comes the sovereign, standing on an elephant, holding his sacred sword in his hand. The elephant's tusks are encased in gold.

Zhou Daguan's description of the Khmer king's wardrobe:[48]

Only the ruler can dress in cloth with an all-over floral design...Around his neck he wears about three pounds of big pearls. At his wrists, ankles and fingers he has gold bracelets and rings all set with cat's eyes...When he goes out, he holds a golden sword [of state] in his hand.

Khmer kings were often involved in series of wars and conquests. The large population of Angkor enabled the kingdom to support large free standing armies, which were sometimes deployed to conquer neighbouring princedoms or kingdoms. Series of conquests were led to expand the kingdom's influence over areas surrounding Angkor and Tonle Sap, the Mekong valley and delta, and surrounding lands. Some Khmer kings embarked on military conquests and war against neighbouringChampa,Dai Viet,and Thai warlords. Khmer kings and royal families were also often involved in incessant power struggle over successions or rivalries over principalities.

Military

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A bas-relief depicting Khmer naval soldiers using bow and arrows. Located in the Bayon, createdc.12th to 13th century.
Helmets, weapons, and armoury of Kambuja's military as depicted in Angkor Wat. Taken from French explorerHenri Mouhot's book.

According to Zhou Daguan, who stayed inYaśodharapurafrom 1296 to 1297, theSukhothai Kingdomlaid waste to Khmer lands in repeated wars. According to Zhou, the Khmer soldiers fought naked and barefoot, wielding only lance and shield. They did not use bows and arrows (though, in some instances, they used them in naval warfare), trebuchets, body armour, or helmets. When Sukhotai attacked, ordinary people were ordered to face them without strategy or preparation.[52]The Khmer had double bow crossbows mounted on elephants, which Michel JacqHergoualc'h suggests were elements ofChammercenaries inJayavarman VII's army.[53]

In terms of fortifications, Zhou describedAngkor Thom's walls as being 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) long in circumference with five gateways, each with two gates, surrounded by a large moat spanned by bridges. The walls, which formed an exact square, were made of stone and so tightly packed that no weeds grew from them. The walls were around 6–7 meters in height and sloped from the inside, thick enough to contain chambers, but with no battlements and only a single stone tower on each of the four sides. Guards operated them, but dogs were not allowed on the walls.[54]According to an oral tradition told toHenri Mouhot,Kambuja had a standing army of 5 to 6 million soldiers.[55]

Culture and way of life

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Relief in the Bayon depictingcockfighting
Bas-relief depicting people playing a chess-like game

Zhou Daguan's description of Khmer houses:[48]

The dwellings of the princes and principal officials have a completely different layout and dimensions from those of the people. All the outlying buildings are covered with thatch; only the family temple and the principal apartment can be covered in tiles. The official rank of each person determines the size of the houses.

Houses of farmers were situated near the rice paddies on the edge of the cities. The walls of the houses were made of woven bamboo, with thatched roofs, and they were on stilts. A house was divided into three rooms by woven bamboo walls. One was the parents' bedroom, another was the daughters' bedroom, and the largest was the living area. Sons slept wherever they could find space. The kitchen was at the back or in a separate room. Nobles and kings lived in the palace and much larger houses in the city. They were made of the same materials as the farmers' houses, but the roofs were wooden shingles and had elaborate designs as well as more rooms.

Zhou Daguan reported that locals do not produce silk or have the ability to stitch and darn with a needle and thread.[56]

None of the locals produces silk. Nor do the women know how to stitch and darn with a needle and thread. The only thing they can do is weave cotton from kapok. Even then they cannot spin the yarn, but just use their hands to gather the cloth into strands. They do not use a loom for weaving. Instead they just wind one end of the cloth around their waist, hang the other end over a window, and use a bamboo tube as a shuttle. In recent years people from Siam have come to live in Cambodia, and unlike the locals they engage in silk production. The mulberry trees they grow and the silkworms they raise all come from Siam. They themselves weave the silk into clothes made of a black, patterned satiny silk. Siamese women do know how to stitch and darn, so when local people have torn or damaged clothing they ask them to do the mending.

The common people wore asampotwhere the front end was drawn between the legs and secured at the back by a belt. Nobles and kings wore finer and richer fabrics. Women wore a strip of cloth to cover the chest, while noble women had a lengthened one that went over the shoulder. Men and women wore aKrama.Along with depictions of battle and the military conquests of kings, the basreliefs of the Bayon depict the mundane everyday life of common Khmer people, including scenes of the marketplace, fishermen, butchers, people playing a chess-like game, and gambling duringcockfighting.[citation needed]

Religion

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Vishnu,Baphuonstyle

The main religion wasHinduism,followed byBuddhismin popularity.[citation needed]Initially, the kingdom revered Hinduism as the main state religion.[citation needed]VishnuandShivawere the most revered deities, worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples. Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known asPhitsanulok(Vara Vishnulokain Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous KingSuryavarman IIas Vishnu.

Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), usually only held among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class. The empire's official religions included Hinduism andMahayana BuddhismuntilTheravada Buddhismprevailed, even among thelower classes,after its introduction fromSri Lankain the 13th century.[57]

Art and architecture

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Main articles:Khmer architectureandKhmer sculpture
Kambuja's Spean Praptos, acorbelbridge in present-day Siem Reap Province, Cambodia

Zhou Daguan's description on the Angkor Royal Palace:[58]

All official buildings and homes of the aristocracy, including the Royal Palace, face the east. The Royal Palace stands north of the Golden Tower and the Bridge of Gold: it is one and a half mile in circumference. The tiles of the main dwelling are of lead. Other dwellings are covered with yellow-coloured pottery tiles. Carved or painted Buddhas decorate all the immense columns and lintels. The roofs are impressive too. Open corridors and long colonnades, arranged in harmonious patterns, stretch away on all sides.

Kambuja produced numerous temples and majestic monuments to celebrate the divine authority of Khmer kings. Khmer architecture reflects the Hindu belief that the temple was built to recreate the abode ofHindu gods,Mount Meru,with its five peaks and surrounded by seas represented by ponds and moats. The early Khmer temples built in the Angkor region and theBakongtemple inHariharalaya(Roluos) employedstepped pyramidstructures to represent the sacred temple-mountain.

Khmer art and architecture reached their aesthetic and technical peak with the construction of the majestic templeAngkor Wat.Other temples are also constructed in the Angkor region, such asTa Phromand theBayon.The construction of the temple demonstrates the artistic and technical achievements of Kambuja through its architectural mastery of stone masonry.

List of architectural styles during Angkor period:[59]

Styles Dates Rulers Temples Chief Characteristics
Kulen 825–875 Jayavarman II Damrei Krap Continuation of pre-Angkorean but a period of innovation and borrowing such as fromChamtemples. Tower mainly square and relatively high. Mainly brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds. Square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear.
Preah Ko 877–886 Jayavarman IIIIndravarman I Preah Ko,Bakong,Lolei Simple plan: one or more square brick towers on a single base. First appearance of concentric enclosures and ofgopuraand libraries. Decorative 'flying palaces' replaced bydvarapalasanddevatasin niches. First majortemple mountainatBakong.
Bakheng 889–923 Yasovarman IHarshavarman I Phnom Bakheng,Phnom Krom,Phnom Bok,Baksei Chamkrong(trans.) Development of thetemple mountain.More use of stone, particularly for major temples and more decorative stone carving.
Koh Ker 921–944 Jayavarman IV Group ofKoh Kertemples Scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone also used.
Pre Rup 944–968 Rajendravarman Pre Rup,East Mebon,Bat Chum,Kutisvara Transitional betweenKoh KerandBanteay Srei.Long halls partly enclose sanctuary. The last great monuments in plastered brick, increasing use of sandstone.
Banteay Srei 967–1000 Jayavarman V Banteay Srei Ornate,superposedpediments,sweepinggableends, rich and deep carving. Plasterd brick replaced by stone andlaterite.Appearance of scenes in pediments. Voluptuous devatas with gentle expressions.
Khleang 968–1010 Jayavarman V Ta Keo,TheKhleangs,Phimeanakas,Royal Palace First use of galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving.
Baphuon 1050–1080 Udayadityavarman II Baphuon,West Mebon A return to rich carving: floral motifs but alsolintelswith scenes.Nagaswithout head-dress.Bas-reliefsappear at Baphuon temple, carving with lively scenes enclosed in small panels, often in narritive sequence.
Angkor Wat 1113–1175 Suryavarman IIYasovarman II Angkor Wat,Banteay Samré,Thommanon,Chau Say Tevoda,Beng Mealea,some ofPreah Pithu,PhimaiandPhnom Rung The high classical style of Khmer architecture. Fully developed conical towers with carving profile. Galleries wider and with half galleries on one side. Concentric enclosures connected by axial galleries. Nagas with head-dress, naga balustrades raised off the ground. Invention of cross-shaped terrace. Richly carved lintels and other decorations. Bas-reliefs,Apsaras.
Bayon 1181–1243 Jayavarman VIIIndravarman II Ta Prohm,Preah Khan,Neak Pean,Ta Som,Ta Nei,Angkor Thom,Prasat Chrung,Bayon,Elephant terrace,Ta Prohm Kel,Krol Ko,Prasat Suor Prat,Banteay Chhmar,HospitalChaples,Jayatatakabaray The last great style. Hurried construction, often in laterite not stone, carving less elegant. Complex plans, huge temples. In Cambodia, face-towers and historical narrative bas-reliefs. Three periods: 1. large complex temples on a single level, 2. face-towers and avenues of giants carrying nagas, 3. decline of the building standards, devatas acquire Angkor Wat style diadem.
Post Bayon 1243–15th c. Jayavarman VIIIand others Terrace of the Leper King,Preah Pithu,Preah Palilay(modifications to temples) Inversion of cross-shaped terrace, causeways on columns, low or high.

Relations with regional powers

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Expansion of Kambuja into the kingdoms ofLavoandChampa[citation needed]
Phimai,the site of the ancient Khmer city of Vimayapura

During the formation of the empire, the Khmer had close cultural, political, and trade relations withJava[60]and with theSrivijayaempire that lay beyond Khmer's southern seas. In 851 aPersianmerchant namedSulaiman al-Tajirrecorded an incident involving a Khmer king and a Maharaja ofZabaj.He described the story of a Khmer king who defied the power of Maharaja of Zabaj. It was said that the Javanese Sailendras staged a surprise attack on the Khmers by approaching the capital from the river. The young king was later punished by the Maharaja, and subsequently the kingdom became a vassal of the Sailendra dynasty.[17]: 35 

Zabaj is theArabicform ofJavakaand might refer to Java or Srivijaya. The legend probably describes the predecessor or initial stage of the Khmer kingdom under Javanese dominion.[61]The Legend of the Maharaja of Zabaj was later published by the historianMasoudiin his 947 book, "Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems." TheKaladi inscriptionof Java (c.909) mentionedKmir(Khmer people or Cambodian) together withCampa(Champa) andRman(Mon) as foreigners from mainland Southeast Asia who frequently came to Java to trade. The inscription suggests a maritime trade network had been established between Kambuja and Java (Mdangkingdom).[62]

In 916 CE Arab historian Abu Zaid Hasan, recorded in a lengthy chronicle that the young, inexperienced king of Khmer, is hostile to Java. When the hostility becomes state policy and is known publicly, the King of Java attacked and captured the Khmer king. He was beheaded and the head brought to Java. The King of Java ordered the Minister of Khmer Empire to seek the successor. After being cleaned and embalmed, the head of the king was put in a vase and sent to the new Khmer king.[63]

Throughout its history, the empire also was involved in series of wars and rivalries with the neighbouring kingdoms ofChampa,Tambralinga,andĐại Việt– and later in its history with SiameseSukhothaiandAyutthaya.The Khmer Empire's relations with its eastern neighbour Champa was exceptionally intense, as both sides struggled for domination in the region. The Cham fleet raided Angkor in 1177, and in 1203 the Khmer managed to push back and defeat Champa.

A Khmer soldier (left) fights against his Cham rival (right). The bas-reliefs of theBayon,always depict the Chams as wearing helmets in the shape of aMagnolia champacaflower.

Arab writersof the 9th and 10th century hardly mention the region for anything other than its perceived backwardness, but they considered the king of Al-Hind (India and Southeast Asia) one of the four great kings in the world.[64]The ruler of theRashtrakuta Dynastyis described as the greatest king of Al-Hind, but even the lesser kings of Al-Hind including the kings of Java,Pagan Burma,and the Khmer kings of Cambodia are invariably depicted by the Arabs as extremely powerful and as being equipped with vast armies of men, horses, and often tens of thousands of elephants. They were also known to have been in possession of vast treasures of gold and silver.[65]The Khmer rulers established relations with theChola dynastyof South India.[66]

The Khmer Empire seems to have maintained contact withChinese dynasties;spanning from the lateTangperiod to theYuanperiod. The relations with the Yuan dynasty was of great historical significance, since it producedThe Customs of Cambodia(Chân tịch phong thổ ký), an important insight into the Khmer Empire's daily life, culture and society. The report was written between 1296 and 1297 by the Yuan diplomat Zhou Daguan, sent byTemür Khanof Yuan dynasty to stay in Angkor.[48]

Mainland Southeast Asia at the end of the 13th century

Beginning in the 13th century, Khmer's relations with theSiamesewere difficult and bitter, resulting in rivalry and hostility for centuries. In August 1296, Zhou Daguan recorded that in the recent war with the Siamese, the country was utterly devastated. This report confirmed that by the late 13th century, the Siamese warlords had revolted and disrupted the Khmer empire's hegemony, starting Siam's rise. By the 14th century, the SiameseAyutthaya Kingdombecame the Khmer empire's formidable rival, as Angkor was besieged and captured twice by Ayutthayan Siamese invaders in 1353 and 1394. Being the successor to the former Khmer dependency ofLavo(Lopburi), Ayutthaya also inherited traditions of Khmer prestige and statecraft. Unlike earlier Tai polities that had a relatively flat hierarchy, Ayutthaya adopted Angkor's more complex social stratification, the deification of kings(Devaraja)as well as Khmer honorifics and elaborateBrahmanicrituals. Specialist staff in early Ayutthaya, like scribes, court Brahmans, jurists, chamberlains, accountants, physicians and astrologers, usually came from the Khmer-speaking elites of city-states in the eastern Chaophraya Basin that had been under the influence of the Khmer Empire.[67]

In the 1300s, the Lao princeFa Ngumwas exiled to live in the royal court ofAngkor.His father-in-law, the King of Cambodia, gave him a Khmer army to create abuffer statein what is nowLaos.Fa Ngum conquered local principalities and established the Kingdom ofLan Xang.With the assistance of Khmer scholars, Fa Ngum introducedTheravada Buddhismand the culture of the Khmer Empire to the region.

A Javanese source, theNagarakretagamacanto 15, composed in 1365 in theMajapahitEmpire, claimed Java had established diplomatic relations withKambuja(Cambodia) together withSyangkayodhyapura(Ayutthaya),Dharmmanagari(Negara Sri Dharmaraja),Rajapura(Ratchaburi) andSinghanagari(Songkla),Marutma(Martaban orMottama,SouthernMyanmar),ChampaandYawana(Annam).[68]This record describes the political situations in Mainland Southeast Asia in the mid-14th century; although the Cambodian kingdom still survived, the rise of Siamese Ayutthaya had taken its toll. Finally, the empire fell, marked by the abandonment of Angkor for Phnom Penh in 1431, caused by Siamese pressure.

List of rulers

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See also:List of monarchs of CambodiaandMonarchs' family tree
Reign King Capital Information and events
802–835 Jayavarman II Mahendraparvata,Hariharalaya Proclaimed the independence of Kambuja fromJava.Claimed asChakravartinthrough sacred Hindu ritual onPhnom Kulenand initiatingDevarajacult in Cambodia.
835–877 Jayavarman III Hariharalaya Son of Jayavarman II
877–889 Indravarman I Hariharalaya Nephew of Jayavarman II. Built Preah Ko dedicated toJayavarman II,also for his father and his grand father. Constructed temple mountainBakong.
889–910 Yasovarman I Hariharalaya,Yasodharapura Son of Indravarman I. Built Indratataka Baray andLolei.Moved the capital to Yasodharapura centred aroundPhnom Bakheng,and also builtYashodharatataka.
910–923 Harshavarman I Yasodharapura Son of Yasovarman I. Involved in a power struggle against his maternal uncle Jayavarman IV. BuiltBaksei Chamkrong.
923–928 Ishanavarman II Yasodharapura Son of Yasovarman I, brother of Harshavarman I. Involved in a power struggle against his maternal uncle Jayavarman IV. BuiltPrasat Kravan.
928–941 Jayavarman IV Koh Ker(Lingapura) Son of King Indravarman I's daughter, Mahendradevi, married to Yasovarman I sister, claim the throne through maternal line. Ruled fromKoh Ker.
941–944 Harshavarman II Koh Ker(Lingapura) Son of Jayavarman IV.
944–968 Rajendravarman II Angkor(Yasodharapura) Uncle and first cousin of Harshavarman II and wrestle power from him. Transfer the capital back to Angkor, BuiltPre RupandEast Mebon.War against Champa in 946.
968–1001 Jayavarman V Angkor(Jayendranagari) Son of Rajendravarman II. Built a new capital Jayendranagari andTa Keoin its centre.
1001–1006 Udayadityavarman I, Jayaviravarman, Suryavarman I Angkor Period of chaos, three kings rule simultaneously as antagonist.
1006–1050 Suryavarman I Angkor Took the throne. Alliance withCholaand conflict withTambralingakingdom. BuiltPreah Khan Kompong Svay.The king adhered to Mahayana Buddhism.
1050–1066 Udayadityavarman II Angkor(Yasodharapura) Took the throne, descendant of Yasovarman I's spouse. BuiltBaphuon,West BarayandWest Mebon,alsoSdok Kok Thom.
1066–1080 Harshavarman III Angkor(Yasodharapura) Succeeded his elder brother Udayadityavarman II, capital at Baphuon. Champa invasion in 1074 and 1080.
1090–1107 Jayavarman VI Angkor Usurper from Vimayapura. BuiltPhimai.
1107–1113 Dharanindravarman I Angkor Succeeded his younger brother, Jayavarman VI.
1113–1145 Suryavarman II Angkor Usurped and killed his great uncle. BuiltAngkor Wat,Banteay Samre,Thommanon,Chau Say TevodaandBeng Mealea.InvadeĐại ViệtandChampa.
1150–1160 Dharanindravarman II Angkor Succeeded his cousin Suryavarman II
1160–1167 Yasovarman II Angkor Overthrown by his minister Tribhuvanadityavarman
1167–1177 Tribhuvanadityavarman Angkor Cham invasion in 1177 and 1178 led by Jaya Indravarman IV, looted the Khmer capital.
1178–1181 Chamoccupation, led by Champa kingJaya Indravarman IV
1181–1218 Jayavarman VII Angkor(Yasodharapura) Led Khmer army against Cham invaders thus liberated Cambodia. Led the conquest of Champa (1190–1191). Major infrastructure constructions; built hospitals, rest houses, reservoirs, and temples includingTa Prohm,Preah Khan,theBayoninAngkor Thomcity, andNeak Pean.
1219–1243 Indravarman II Angkor Son of Jayavarman VII. Lost control ofChampaand lost western territories toSiameseSukhothai Kingdom.
1243–1295 Jayavarman VIII Angkor Mongolinvasion led byKublai Khanin 1283 and war with Sukhothai. Built Mangalartha. He was a zealous Shivaite and eradicated Buddhist influences.
1295–1308 Indravarman III Angkor Overthrew his father in law Jayavarman VIII. MadeTheravada Buddhismthe state religion. ReceivedYuanChinese diplomatZhou Daguan(1296–1297).
1308–1327 Indrajayavarman Angkor
1327–1336 Jayavarman IX Angkor Last Sanskrit inscription (1327).
1336–1340 Trasak Paem Angkor
1340–1346 Nippean Bat Angkor
1346–1347 Sithean Reachea Angkor
1347–1352 Lompong Reachea Angkor
1352–1357 SiameseAyutthayainvasion led byUthong
1357–1363 Soryavong Angkor
1363–1373 Borom Reachea I Angkor
1373–1393 Thomma Saok Angkor
1393 SiameseAyutthayainvasion led byRamesuan
1394–c.1421 In Reachea Angkor
1405–1431 Barom Reachea II Angkor,Chaktomuk Abandoned Angkor (1431).
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  • Angkor-period temples in Laos
  • Vat Phou
  • Angkor-period temples in Vietnam
  • Vĩnh Hưng temple

See also

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References

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  56. ^Daguan, Zhou (2007).A Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People.Silkworm Books.ISBN9789749511244.Archivedfrom the original on 21 October 2023.Retrieved10 July2023.
  57. ^Keyes, 1995,pp.78–82
  58. ^Tabish Khair, ed. (2006).Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing.Indiana University Press. p. 115.ISBN978-0253218216.Archivedfrom the original on 31 October 2023.Retrieved18 March2016.
  59. ^"Ancient Angkor guide book",by Michael Freeman and Claude Jacques, pp. 30–31, published in 2003.
  60. ^Widyono, Benny (2008).Dancing in shadows: Sihanouk, the Khmer Rouge, and the United Nations in Cambodia.Rowman & Littlefield Publisher.ISBN9780742555532.Archivedfrom the original on 31 October 2023.Retrieved25 February2013.
  61. ^St Julian, James (March 2014).The tale of the Khmer king and the Maharaja of Zabag.Vol. 48. pp. 59–63.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2019.Retrieved17 October2015.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  62. ^Fujita Kayoko; Shiro Momoki; Anthony Reid, eds. (2013).Offshore Asia: Maritime Interactions in Eastern Asia Before Steamships, volume 18 from Nalanda-Sriwijaya series.Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 97.ISBN978-9814311779.Archivedfrom the original on 31 October 2023.Retrieved1 November2020.
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  64. ^India and Indonesia During the Ancien Regime: Essays by P. J. Marshall, Robert Van Niel
  65. ^India and Indonesia During the Ancien Regime: Essays by P. J. Marshall, Robert Van Niel: p. 41
  66. ^India: A History by John Keay p. 223
  67. ^David K. Wyatt (2003).Thailand: A Short History(2nd ed.). Yale University Press. pp. 55–61.
  68. ^Nagarakretagamapupuh(canto) 15, these states are mentioned asMitreka Satata,literary means "partners with common order".

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