Kievan Rus'

For other historical states known as Rus', seeRus.

Kievan Rus',also known asKyivan Rus',was the firstEast Slavicstate and later an amalgam of principalitiesinEastern Europefrom the late 9th to the mid-13th century.Encompassing a variety of polities and peoples, includingEast Slavic,Norse,andFinnic,it was ruled by theRurik dynasty,founded by theVarangianprinceRurik.The name was coined by Russian historians in the 19th century to describe the period whenKievwas at the center. At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, Kievan Rus' stretched from theWhite Seain the north to theBlack Seain the south and from theheadwatersof theVistulain the west to theTaman Peninsulain the east,uniting the East Slavic tribes.

Kievan Rus'
c.880–1240
Rurikid princely emblemsdepicted on coins: Left:Vladimir the Great(10–11th century) Right:Yaroslav the Wise(11th century)
A map of Kievan Rus' after the death ofYaroslav Iin 1054
Capital	Kiev(882–1240)
Common languages	Old East Slavic Old Church Slavonic(literary) Old Norse Finnic languages
Religion	Slavic paganism(native faith ofSlavs) Reformed state paganism(officialuntil 10th century) Orthodox Christianity(official since 10th cent.) Norse paganism(locally practiced) Finnish paganism(native faith ofFinnic peoples)
Demonym(s)	Rus'
Government	Monarchy
Prince
•c.882–912 (first)	Oleg the Wise
Legislature	Veche
History
• Established	c.880
• Conquest ofKhazar Khaganate	965–969
•Christianization	c.988
•Russkaya Pravda	1050s
•Mongol invasion	1237–1241
•Siege of Kiev	1240
Area
1000	1,330,000 km2(510,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1000	5.4 million
Currency	Grivna
Preceded by Succeeded by Ilmen Slavs Krivichs Chud Volga Finns Dregoviches Radimichs Eastern Polans Severians Drevlians Vyatichi Volhynians White Croatia Tivertsi Ulichs Principality of Kiev Novgorod Republic Principality of Chernigov Principality of Pereyaslavl Vladimir-Suzdal Principality of Volhynia Principality of Galicia Principality of Polotsk Principality of Smolensk Principality of Ryazan Mongol Empire

According to thePrimary Chronicle,the first ruler to unite East Slavic lands into what would become Kievan Rus' wasOleg the Wise(r. 879–912). He extended his control fromNovgorodsouth along theDnieperriver valley to protect trade fromKhazarincursions from the east,and took control of the city.Sviatoslav I(r. 943–972) achieved the first major territorial expansion of the state, fighting a war of conquest against theKhazars.Vladimir the Great(r. 980–1015)spread Christianitywith his own baptism and, by decree, extended it to all inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent underYaroslav the Wise(r. 1019–1054); his sons assembled and issued its first written legal code, theRusskaya Pravda,shortly after his death.

The state began to decline in the late 11th century, gradually disintegrating into various rival regional powers throughout the 12th century.It was further weakened by external factors, such as thedecline of the Byzantine Empire,its major economic partner, and the accompanying diminution oftrade routesthrough its territory.It finally fell to theMongol invasionin the mid-13th century, though theRurik dynastywould continue to rule until the death ofFeodor I of Russiain 1598.The modern nations ofBelarus,Russia,andUkraineall claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural ancestor,with Belarus and Russia deriving their names from it, and the name Kievan Rus' derived from what is now the capital of Ukraine.

Names

Main articles:Names of Rus', Russia and RutheniaandRuthenia

"Rus' land" from thePrimary Chronicle,a copy of theLaurentian Codex

During its existence, Kievan Rus' was known as the "Rus'land "(Old East Slavic:ро́усьскаѧ землѧ́,romanized:rusĭskaę zemlę,from the ethnonymРоусь,Rusĭ;Medieval Greek:Ῥῶς,romanized:Rhos;Arabic:الروس,romanized:ar-Rūs), in Greek asῬωσία,Rhosia,in Old French asRussie, Rossie,in Latin asRusiaorRussia(with local German spelling variantsRusciaandRuzzia), and from the 12th century also asRutheniaorRutenia.Variousetymologieshave been proposed, includingRuotsi,theFinnishdesignation for Sweden orRos,a tribe from the middle Dnieper valley region.

According to the prevalent theory, the nameRus',like theProto-Finnicname forSweden(*rootsi), is derived from anOld Norseterm for 'men who row' (rods-) because rowing was the main method of navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe, and could be linked to the Swedish coastal area ofRoslagen(Rus-law) orRoden.The nameRus'would then have the same origin as the Finnish andEstoniannames for Sweden:RuotsiandRootsi.

Rus' landin the narrow sense.

1. AfterPetro Tolochko

2. After A. M. Nasonov

3. AfterBoris Rybakov

When the Varangian princes arrived, the name Rus' was associated with them and came to be associated with the territories they controlled. Initially the cities of Kiev,Chernigov,andPereyaslavland their surroundings came under Varangian control.From the late tenth century,Vladimir the GreatandYaroslav the Wisetried to associate the name with all of the extended princely domains. Both meanings persisted in sources until the Mongol conquest: the narrower one, referring to the triangular territory east of the middle Dnieper, and the broader one, encompassing all the lands under the hegemony of Kiev's grand princes.

The Russian termKiyevskaya Rus'(Russian:Ки́евская Русь) was coined in the 19th century inRussian historiographyto refer to the period when the centre was in Kiev.In the 19th century it also appeared in Ukrainian asKyivska Rus'(Ukrainian:Ки́ївська Русь).Later, the Russian term was rendered into Belarusian asKiyewskaya Rus'orKijeŭskaja Ruś(Belarusian:Кіеўская Русь) and into Rusyn asKyïvska Rus'(Rusyn:Київска Русь).

In English, the term was introduced in the early 20th century, when it was found in the 1913 English translation ofVasily Klyuchevsky'sA History of Russia,to distinguish the early polity from successor states, which were also namedRus'. TheVarangianRus' from Scandinavia used theOld NorsenameGarðaríki,which, according toa common interpretation,means "land of towns".

History

Origin

Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, most of the area north of theBlack Seawas primarily populated byeastern Slavictribes.In the northern region aroundNovgorodwere theIlmen Slavsand neighboringKrivichi,who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of theWest Dvina,DnieperandVolgarivers. To their north, in theLadogaandKareliaregions, were the FinnicChudtribe. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were thePoliane,theDrevlianeto the west of the Dnieper, and theSeverianeto the east. To their north and east were theVyatichi,and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, giving way tosteppelandspopulated by nomadic herdsmen.

There was once controversy over whether theRus'wereVarangiansor Slavs (seeanti-Normanism), however, more recently scholarly attention has focused more on debating how quickly an ancestrallyNorsepeople assimilated into Slavic culture.This uncertainty is due largely to a paucity of contemporary sources. Attempts to address this question instead rely on archaeological evidence, the accounts of foreign observers, and legends and literature from centuries later.To some extent the controversy is related to thefoundation mythsof modern states in the region.This often unfruitful debate over origins has periodically devolved into competing nationalist narratives of dubious scholarly value being promoted directly by various government bodies in a number of states. This was seen in theStalinistperiod, whenSoviet historiographysought to distance the Rus' from any connection to Germanic tribes, in an effort to dispel Nazi propaganda claiming the Russian state owed its existence and origins to the supposedly racially superior Norse tribes.More recently, in the context of resurgent nationalism in post-Soviet states, Anglophone scholarship has analyzed renewed efforts to use this debate to create ethno-nationalist foundation stories, with governments sometimes directly involved in the project.Conferences and publications questioning the Norse origins of the Rus' have been supported directly by state policy in some cases, and the resultant foundation myths have been included in some school textbooks in Russia.

While Varangians were Norse traders andVikings,many Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historians argue that the Rus' were themselves Slavs.Normanist theories focus on the earliest written source for theEast Slavs,thePrimary Chronicle,which was produced in the 12th century.Nationalist accounts on the other hand have suggested that the Rus' were present before the arrival of the Varangians,noting that only a handful of Scandinavian words can be found in Russian and that Scandinavian names in the early chronicles were soon replaced by Slavic names.

Nevertheless, the close connection between the Rus' and the Norse is confirmed both by extensive Scandinavian settlement in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine and by Slavic influences in the Swedish language.Though the debate over the origin of the Rus' remains politically charged, there is broad agreement that if the proto-Rus' were indeed originally Norse, they were quicklynativized,adopting Slavic languages and other cultural practices. This position, roughly representing a scholarly consensus (at least outside of nationalist historiography), was summarized by the historian, F. Donald Logan, "in 839, the Rus wereSwedes;in 1043 the Rus wereSlavs".

Ahmad ibn Fadlan,an Arab traveler during the 10th century, provided one of the earliest written descriptions of the Rus': "They are as tall as adate palm,blond and ruddy, so that they do not need to wear a tunic nor a cloak; rather the men among them wear garments that only cover half of his body and leaves one of his hands free. "Liutprand of Cremona,who was twice an envoy to theByzantinecourt (949 and 968), identifies the "Russi" with theNorse( "the Russi, whom we call Norsemen by another name" )but explains the name as a Greek term referring to their physical traits ( "A certain people made up of a part of the Norse, whom the Greeks call [...] the Russi on account of their physical features, we designate as Norsemen because of the location of their origin." ).Leo the Deacon,a 10th-century Byzantine historian and chronicler, refers to the Rus' as "Scythians"and notes that they tended to adopt Greek rituals and customs.

Calling of the Varangians

Main article:Calling of the Varangians

The Invitation of theVarangiansbyViktor Vasnetsov:Rurikand his brothersSineus and Truvorarrive at the lands of theIlmen Slavs.

According to thePrimary Chronicle,the territories of the East Slavs in the 9th century were divided between the Varangians and the Khazars.The Varangians are first mentioned imposing tribute from Slavic and Finnic tribes in 859.In 862, various tribes rebelled against the Varangians, driving them "back beyond the sea and, refusing them further tribute, set out to govern themselves".

They said to themselves, "Let us seek a prince who may rule over us, and judge us according to the Law." They accordingly went overseas to the Varangian Rus'.... The Chuds, the Slavs, the Krivichs and the Ves then said to the Rus', "Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us". They thus selected three brothers with their kinfolk, who took with them all the Rus' and migrated.

Modern scholars find this an unlikely series of events, probably made up by the 12th-century Orthodox priests who authored theChronicleas an explanation how the Vikings managed to conquer the lands along the Varangian route so easily, as well as to support the legitimacy of the Rurikid dynasty.The three brothers—Rurik,Sineus and Truvor—supposedly established themselves in Novgorod,BeloozeroandIzborsk,respectively.Two of the brothers died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the territory and progenitor of theRurik dynasty.A short time later, two of Rurik's men,Askold and Dir,asked him for permission to go to Tsargrad (Constantinople). On their way south, they came upon "a small city on a hill", Kiev, which was a tributary of the Khazars at the time, stayed there and "established their dominion over the country of thePolyanians."

ThePrimary Chroniclereports that Askold and Dir continued to Constantinople with a navy toattack the cityin 863–66, catching the Byzantines by surprise and ravaging the surrounding area,though other accounts date the attack in 860.Patriarch Photiusvividly describes the "universal" devastation of the suburbs and nearby islands,and another account further details the destruction and slaughter of the invasion.The Rus' turned back before attacking the city itself, due either to a storm dispersing their boats, the return of the Emperor, or in a later account, due to a miracle after a ceremonial appeal by the Patriarch and the Emperor to the Virgin.The attack was the first encounter between the Rus' and Byzantines and led the Patriarch to send missionaries north to engage and attempt to convert the Rus' and the Slavs.

Foundation of the Kievan state

East-Slavic tribes and peoples, 8th–9th centuries

Rurik led the Rus' until his death in about 879 or 882, bequeathing his kingdom to his kinsman,Prince Oleg,as regent for his young son,Igor.According to thePrimary Chronicle,in 880–82, Oleg led a military force south along theDnieperriver, capturingSmolenskandLyubechbefore reaching Kiev, where he deposed and killed Askold and Dir: "Oleg set himself up as prince in Kiev, and declared that it should be the" mother of Rus' cities ".Oleg set about consolidating his power over the surrounding region and the riverways north to Novgorod, imposing tribute on the East Slav tribes.

In 883, he conquered theDrevlians,imposing a fur tribute on them. By 885 he had subjugated the Poliane, Severiane, Vyatichi, andRadimichs,forbidding them to pay further tribute to the Khazars. Oleg continued to develop and expand a network of Rus' forts in Slavic lands, begun by Rurik in the north.

The new Kievan state prospered due to its abundant supply of furs, beeswax, honey and slaves for export,and because it controlled three main trade routes ofEastern Europe.In the north, Novgorod served as a commercial link between the Baltic Sea and theVolga trade routeto the lands of theVolga Bulgars,the Khazars, and across theCaspian Seaas far asBaghdad,providing access to markets and products from Central Asia and the Middle East.Trade from the Baltic also moved south on a network of rivers and short portages along the Dnieper known as the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks,"continuing to the Black Sea and on to Constantinople.

Kiev was a central outpost along the Dnieper route and a hub with the east–west overlandtrade route between the Khazars and the Germanic landsof Central Europe.and may have been a staging post forRadhanite Jewishtraders between Western Europe, Itil and China.These commercial connections enriched Rus' merchants and princes, funding military forces and the construction of churches, palaces, fortifications, and further towns.Demand for luxury goods fostered production of expensive jewelry and religious wares, allowing their export, and an advanced credit and money-lending system may have also been in place.

Early foreign relations

Volatile steppe politics

The rapid expansion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relationships with theKhazarsand other neighbors on thePontic steppe.The Khazars dominated trade from the Volga-Don steppes to easternCrimeaand the northernCaucasusduring the 8th century, an era historians call the 'Pax Khazarica',trading and frequentlyallyingwith theByzantine Empireagainst Persians and Arabs. In the late 8th century, the collapse of theGöktürk Khaganateled theMagyarsand thePechenegs,UgriansandTurkic peoplesfrom Central Asia, to migrate west into thestepperegion,leading to military conflict, disruption of trade, and instability within the Khazar Khaganate.The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khazars against Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked against them to secure control of thetrade routes.

TheVolga trade route(red), the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks"(purple) and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange)

The Byzantine Empire was able to take advantage of the turmoil to expand its political influence and commercial relationships, first with the Khazars and later with the Rus' and other steppe groups.The Byzantines established theThemeofCherson,formally known as Klimata, in the Crimea in the 830s to defend against raids by the Rus' and to protect vital grain shipments supplying Constantinople.Cherson also served as a key diplomatic link with the Khazars and others on the steppe, and it became the centre of Black Sea commerce.The Byzantines also helped the Khazars build a fortress atSarkelon the Don river to protect their northwest frontier against incursions by the Turkic migrants and the Rus', and to control caravan trade routes and the portage between the Don and Volga rivers.

The expansion of the Rus' put further military and economic pressure on the Khazars, depriving them of territory, tributaries and trade.In around 890, Oleg waged an indecisive war in the lands of the lowerDniesterand Dnieper rivers with theTivertsiand theUlichs,who were likely acting as vassals of the Magyars, blocking Rus' access to the Black Sea.In 894, the Magyars and Pechenegs were drawn intothe warsbetween the Byzantines and theBulgarian Empire.The Byzantines arranged for the Magyars to attack Bulgarian territory from the north, and Bulgaria in turn persuaded the Pechenegs to attack the Magyars from their rear.

Boxed in, the Magyars were forced to migrate further west across theCarpathian Mountainsinto the Hungarian plain, depriving the Khazars of an important ally and a buffer from the Rus'.The migration of the Magyars allowed access for the Rus' to the Black Sea,and they soon launched excursions into Khazar territory along the sea coast, up the Don river, and into the lower Volga region. The Rus' wereraiding and plunderinginto the Caspian Sea region from 864,with the first large-scale expedition in 913, when they extensively raided Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and penetrated into the Caucasus.

As the 10th century progressed, the Khazars were no longer able to command tribute from the Volga Bulgars, and their relationship with the Byzantines deteriorated, as Byzantium increasingly allied with the Pechenegs against them.The Pechenegs were thus secure to raid the lands of the Khazars from their base between the Volga andDonrivers, allowing them to expand to the west.Relations between the Rus' and Pechenegs were complex, as the groups alternately formed alliances with and against one another. The Pechenegs were nomads roaming the steppe raising livestock which they traded with the Rus' for agricultural goods and other products.

The lucrative Rus' trade with the Byzantine Empire had to pass through Pecheneg-controlled territory, so the need for generally peaceful relations was essential. Nevertheless, while thePrimary Chroniclereports the Pechenegs entering Rus' territory in 915 and then making peace, they were waging war with one another again in 920.Pechenegs are reported assisting the Rus' in later campaigns against the Byzantines, yet allied with the Byzantines against the Rus' at other times.

Rus'–Byzantine relations

Rus' under the walls of Constantinople (860), theRadziwiłł Chronicle

After the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 860, the ByzantinePatriarch Photiussent missionaries north to convert the Rus' and the Slavs to Christianity. PrinceRastislav of Moraviahad requested the Emperor to provide teachers to interpret the holy scriptures, so in 863 the brothersCyril and Methodiuswere sent as missionaries, due to their knowledge of the Slavonic language.The Slavs had no written language, so the brothers devised theGlagolitic alphabet,later replaced byCyrillic(developed in theFirst Bulgarian Empire) and standardized the language of the Slavs, later known asOld Church Slavonic.They translated portions of the Bible and drafted the first Slavic civil code and other documents, and the language and texts spread throughout Slavic territories, including Kievan Rus'.The mission of Cyril and Methodius served both evangelical and diplomatic purposes, spreading Byzantine cultural influence in support of imperial foreign policy.In 867 the Patriarch announced that the Rus' had accepted a bishop, and in 874 he speaks of an "Archbishop of the Rus'."

Relations between the Rus' and Byzantines became more complex after Oleg took control over Kiev, reflecting commercial, cultural, and military concerns.The wealth and income of the Rus' depended heavily upon trade with Byzantium.Constantine Porphyrogenitusdescribed the annual course of the princes of Kiev, collecting tribute from client tribes, assembling the product into a flotilla of hundreds of boats, conducting them down the Dnieper to the Black Sea, and sailing to the estuary of the Dniester, the Danube delta, and on to Constantinople.On their return trip they would carry silk fabrics, spices, wine, and fruit.

The importance of this trade relationship led to military action when disputes arose. ThePrimary Chroniclereports that the Rus'attacked Constantinopleagain in 907, probably to secure trade access. The Chronicle glorifies the military prowess and shrewdness of Oleg, an account imbued with legendary detail.Byzantine sources do not mention the attack, but a pair of treaties in907and911set forth a trade agreement with the Rus',the terms suggesting pressure on the Byzantines, who granted the Rus' quarters and supplies for their merchants and tax-free trading privileges in Constantinople.

TheChronicleprovides a mythic tale of Oleg's death. A sorcerer prophesies that the death of theprincewould be associated with a certain horse. Oleg has the horse sequestered, and it later dies. Oleg goes to visit the horse and stands over the carcass, gloating that he had outlived the threat, when a snake strikes him from among the bones, and he soon becomes ill and dies.TheChroniclereports thatPrince Igorsucceeded Oleg in 913, and after some brief conflicts with the Drevlians and the Pechenegs, a period of peace ensued for over twenty years.

Princess Olga's avenge to the Drevlians,Radziwiłł Chronicle

In 941, Igor led anothermajor Rus' attackon Constantinople, probably over trading rights again.A navy of 10,000 vessels, including Pecheneg allies, landed on theBithyniancoast and devastated the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus.The attack was well timed, perhaps due to intelligence, as the Byzantine fleet was occupied with the Arabs in the Mediterranean, and the bulk of its army was stationed in the east. The Rus' burned towns, churches and monasteries, butchering the people and amassing booty. The emperor arranged for a small group of retired ships to be outfitted withGreek firethrowers and sent them out to meet the Rus', luring them into surrounding the contingent before unleashing the Greek fire.

Liutprand of Cremonawrote that "the Rus', seeing the flames, jumped overboard, preferring water to fire. Some sank, weighed down by the weight of their breastplates and helmets; others caught fire." Those captured were beheaded. The ploy dispelled the Rus' fleet, but their attacks continued into the hinterland as far asNicomedia,with many atrocities reported as victims were crucified and set up for use as targets. At last a Byzantine army arrived from the Balkans to drive the Rus' back, and a naval contingent reportedly destroyed much of the Rus' fleet on its return voyage (possibly an exaggeration since the Rus' soon mounted another attack). The outcome indicates increased military might by Byzantium since 911, suggesting a shift in the balance of power.

Igor returned to Kiev keen for revenge. He assembled a large force of warriors from among neighboring Slavs and Pecheneg allies, and sent for reinforcements of Varangians from "beyond the sea".In 944, the Rus' force advanced again on the Greeks, by land and sea, and a Byzantine force from Cherson responded. The Emperor sent gifts and offered tribute in lieu of war, and the Rus' accepted. Envoys were sent between the Rus', the Byzantines, and the Bulgarians in 945, and apeace treatywas completed. The agreement again focused on trade, but this time with terms less favorable to the Rus', including stringent regulations on the conduct of Rus' merchants in Cherson and Constantinople and specific punishments for violations of the law.The Byzantines may have been motivated to enter the treaty out of concern of a prolonged alliance of the Rus', Pechenegs, and Bulgarians against them,though the more favorable terms further suggest a shift in power.

Sviatoslav

Madrid Skylitzes,meeting betweenJohn Tzimiskesand Sviatoslav

Following the death ofIgorin 945, his wifeOlgaruled asregentin Kiev until their sonSviatoslavreached maturity (c. 963).His decade-long reign over Kievan Rus' was marked by rapid expansion through the conquest of the Khazars of thePontic steppeand theinvasion of the Balkans.By the end of his short life, Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe, eventually moving his capital from Kiev toPereyaslavetson theDanubein 969.

In contrast with his mother's conversion toChristianity,Sviatoslav, like hisdruzhina,remained a staunchpagan.Due to his abrupt death in an ambush in 972, Sviatoslav's conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to afratricidalfeud among his sons, which resulted in two of his three sons being killed.

Reign of Vladimir and Christianisation

Main article:Christianization of Kievan Rus'

Further information:Conversion of Vladimir the Great

Rogneda of Polotsk,Vladimir I of KievandIzyaslav of Polotsk

Baptism of Saint Prince Vladimir,byViktor Vasnetsov,inSt Volodymyr's Cathedral

It is not clearly documented when the title of grand prince was first introduced, but the importance of the Kiev principality was recognized after the death of Sviatoslav I in 972 and the ensuing struggle betweenVladimirandYaropolk.The region of Kiev dominated the region for the next two centuries. The grand prince (or grand duke) of Kiev controlled the lands around the city, and his formally subordinate relatives ruled the other cities and paid him tribute. The zenith of the state's power came during the reigns of Vladimir the Great (r. 980–1015) and PrinceYaroslav I the Wise(r. 1019–1054). Both rulers continued the steady expansion of Kievan Rus' that had begun under Oleg.

Vladimir had beenprince of Novgorodwhen his father Sviatoslav I died in 972, but fled toScandinaviain 977 after his half-brother Yaropolk killed his other half-brother Oleg.According to thePrimary Chronicle,Vladimir assembled a host of Varangian warriors, first subdued thePrincipality of Polotskand then defeated and killed Yaropolk, thus establishing his reign over the entire Kievan Rus' realm.

Although sometimes solely attributed to Vladimir, theChristianization of Kievan Rus'was a long and complicated process that began before the state's formation.As early as the 1st century AD,Greeks in the Black Sea Coloniesconverted to Christianity, and thePrimary Chronicleeven records the legend ofAndrew the Apostle's mission to these coastal settlements, as well as blessing the site of present-day Kyiv.TheGothsmigrated to through the region in the 3rd century, adoptingArian Christianityin the 4th century, leaving behind 4th- and 5th-century churches excavated in Crimea, although theHunnicinvasion of the 370s halted Christianisation for several centuries.Some of the earliest Kievan princes and princesses such asAskold and DirandOlga of Kievreportedly converted to Christianity, butOleg,IgorandSviatoslavremained pagans.

ThePrimary Chroniclerecords the legend that when Vladimir had decided to accept a new faith instead of traditionalSlavic paganism,he sent out some of his most valued advisors and warriors as emissaries to different parts of Europe. They visited the Christians of theLatin Church,theJews,and theMuslimsbefore finally arriving in Constantinople. They rejected Islam because, among other things, it prohibited the consumption of alcohol, and Judaism because the god of the Jews had permitted hischosen peopleto be deprived of their country.They found the ceremonies in the Roman church to be dull. But at Constantinople, they were so astounded by the beauty of the cathedral ofHagia Sophiaand the liturgical service held there that they made up their minds there and then about the faith they would like to follow. Upon their arrival home, they convinced Vladimir that the faith of theByzantine Ritewas the best choice of all, upon which Vladimir made a journey to Constantinople and arranged to marryPrincess Anna,the sister of Byzantine emperorBasil II.Historically, it is more likely that he adopted Byzantine Christianity in order to strengthen his diplomatic relations with Constantinople.Vladimir's choice of Eastern Christianity may have reflected his close personal ties with Constantinople, which dominated the Black Sea and hence trade on Kiev's most vital commercial route, theDnieper River.According to thePrimary Chronicle,Vladimir was baptised inc.987, and ordered the population of Kiev to be baptised in August 988.The greatest resistance against Christianisation appears to have occurred in northern towns including Novgorod, Suzdal, and Belozersk.

Adherence to theEastern Churchhad long-range political, cultural, and religious consequences.The church had aliturgywritten inCyrillicand a corpus of translations from Greek that had been produced for theSlavic peoples.This literature facilitated the conversion to Christianity of theEastern Slavsand introduced them to rudimentaryGreek philosophy,science, andhistoriographywithout the necessity of learningGreek(there were some merchants who did business with Greeks and likely had an understanding of contemporary business Greek).Following theGreat Schismof 1054, the Kievan church maintained communion with both Rome and Constantinople for some time, but along with most of the Eastern churches it eventually split to follow the Eastern Orthodox. That being said, unlike other parts of the Greek world, Kievan Rus' did not have a strong hostility to the Western world.

Reign of Yaroslav

TheGolden Gate, Kyiv

Yaroslav,known as "the Wise", struggled for power with his brothers. A son ofVladimir the Great,he was prince of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015.

Although he first established his rule over Kiev in 1019, he did not have uncontested rule of all of Kievan Rus' until 1036. Like Vladimir, Yaroslav was eager to improve relations with the rest of Europe, especially the Byzantine Empire. Yaroslav's granddaughter,Eupraxia,the daughter of his sonVsevolod I,was married toHenry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.Yaroslav also arranged marriages for his sister and three daughters to the kings of Poland, France, Hungary and Norway.

Yaroslav promulgated the first law code of Kievan Rus', theRusskaya Pravda;builtSaint Sophia Cathedral in KievandSaint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod;patronized local clergy andmonasticism;and is said to have founded a school system. Yaroslav's sons developed the greatKiev Pechersk Lavra(monastery).

Succession issues

See also:War of succession § Analysis

The principalities of later Kievan Rus' (c.1054–1132)

In the centuries that followed the state's foundation,Rurik's descendantsshared power over Kievan Rus'. The means by which royal power was transferred from one Rurikid ruler to the next is unclear, however, historianPaul Magocsimentioned that 'Scholars have debated what the actual system of succession was or whether there was any system at all.'According to historian Nancy Kollmann, therota systemwas used with the princely succession moving from elder to younger brother and from uncle to nephew, as well as from father to son. Junior members of the dynasty usually began their official careers as rulers of a minor district, progressed to more lucrative principalities, and then competed for the coveted throne of Kiev.Whatever the case, according to professor Ivan Katchanovski 'no adequate system of succession to the Kievan throne was developed' after the death ofYaroslav the Wise(r. 1019–1054), commencing a process of gradual disintegration.

The unconventional power succession system fomented constant hatred and rivalry within the royal family.Familicidewas frequently deployed to obtain power and can be traced particularly during the time of the Yaroslavichi (sons of Yaroslav), when the established succession system was skipped in the establishment ofVladimir II Monomakhas the Grand Prince of Kiev (r. 1113–1125), in turn creating major squabbles between theOlegovichi(sons ofOleg I) from Chernigov, theMonomakhovichifrom Pereyaslavl, theIzyaslavichi(sons ofIziaslav) fromTurov–Volhynia,and thePolotsk Princes.The position of the grand prince of Kiev was weakened by the growing influence of regional clans.

Fragmentation and decline

The rivalPrincipality of Polotskwas contesting the power of the Grand Prince by occupying Novgorod, whileRostislav Vladimirovichwas fighting for the Black Sea port ofTmutarakanbelonging to Chernigov. Three of Yaroslav's sons that first allied together found themselves fighting each other especially after their defeat to the Cuman forces in 1068 at theBattle of the Alta River.

The ruling Grand Prince Iziaslav fled to Poland asking for support and in a couple of years returned to establish the order. The affairs became even more complicated by the end of the 11th century driving the state into chaos and constant warfare. On the initiative of Vladimir II Monomakh in 1097 theCouncil of Liubechof Kievan Rus' took place near Chernigov with the main intention to find an understanding among the fighting sides.

By 1130, all descendants ofVseslav the Seerhad been exiled to the Byzantine Empire byMstislav the Great.The most fierce resistance to the Monomakhs was posed by the Olegovichi when theizgoiVsevolod IImanaged to become the Grand Prince of Kiev. TheRostislavichi,who had initially established in the lands ofGaliciaby 1189, were defeated by the Monomakh-Piast descendantRoman the Great.

The decline of Constantinople—a main trading partner of Kievan Rus'—played a significant role in the decline of the Kievan Rus'. Thetrade route from the Varangians to the Greeks,along which the goods were moving from the Black Sea (mainly Byzantine) througheastern Europeto the Baltic, was a cornerstone of Kievan wealth and prosperity. These trading routes became less important as the Byzantine Empire declined in power and Western Europe created new trade routes to Asia and the Near East. As people relied less on passing through the territories of Kievan Rus' for trade, the economy of Kievan Rus' suffered.

The last ruler to maintain a united state was Mstislav the Great. After his death in 1132, Kievan Rus' fell into recession and a rapid decline, and Mstislav's successorYaropolk II of Kiev,instead of focusing on the external threat of theCumans,was embroiled in conflicts with the growing power of theNovgorod Republic.In March 1169, a coalition of native princes led by Andrei Bogolyubsky of Vladimirsacked Kiev.This changed the perception of Kiev and was evidence of the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus'.By the end of the 12th century, the Kievan state fragmented even further, into roughly twelve different principalities.

Lilac borders:Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia,one of the successor states of Kievan Rus'

TheCrusadesbrought a shift in European trade routes that accelerated the decline of Kievan Rus'. In 1204, the forces of theFourth Crusadesacked Constantinople, making theDniepertrade route marginal.At the same time, theLivonian Brothers of the Sword(of theNorthern Crusades) were conquering theBalticregion and threatening theLands of Novgorod.

In the north, theNovgorod Republicprospered because it controlled trade routes from theRiver Volgato the Baltic Sea. As Kievan Rus' declined, Novgorod became more independent. A localoligarchyruled Novgorod; major government decisions were made by a town assembly, which also elected a prince as the city's military leader. In 1136, Novgorod revolted against Kiev, and became independent.Now an independentcity republic,and referred to as "Lord Novgorod the Great" it would spread its "mercantile interest" to the west and the north; to the Baltic Sea and the low-populated forest regions, respectively.

In 1199,Prince Roman Mstislavychunited the two previously separate principalities of Galicia andVolhynia.His sonDaniel(r. 1238–1264) looked for support from the West.He accepted a crown from the Romanpapacy.

Final disintegration

Following the Mongol invasion ofCumania(or the Kipchaks), in which case many Cuman rulers fled to Rus', such asKöten,the state finally disintegrated under the pressure of theMongol invasion of Kievan Rus',fragmenting it into successor principalities who paid tribute to theGolden Horde(the so-calledTatar Yoke). Just prior to the Mongol invasion, Kievan Rus' had been a relatively prosperous region. International trade as well as skilled artisans flourished, while its farms produced enough to feed the urban population. After the invasion of the late 1230s, the economy shattered, and its population were either slaughtered orsold into slavery;while skilled laborers and artisans were sent to the Mongol's steppe regions.

On the southwestern periphery, Kievan Rus' was succeeded by thePrincipality of Galicia-Volhynia.Later, as these territories, now part of modern centralUkraineandBelarus,fell to theGediminids,the powerful, largely RuthenizedGrand Duchy of Lithuaniadrew heavily on the cultural and legal traditions of the Rus'. From 1398 until theUnion of Lublinin 1569, its full name was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia.

On the north-eastern periphery of Kievan Rus', traditions were adapted in theVladimir-Suzdalprincipality that gradually gravitated towards Moscow. To the very north, theNovgorodandPskovfeudal republics were less autocratic than Vladimir-Suzdal-Moscow until they were absorbed by theGrand Duchy of Moscow.Modern historians from Belarus, Russia and Ukraine alike consider Kievan Rus' the first period of their modern countries' histories.

Society

Culture

Administering justice in Kievan Rus',byIvan Bilibin

Main article:Culture of Kievan Rus'

See also:Kievan Rus' law;Russkaya Pravda;andDemographic history of Russia § Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion and vassalage

The lands of Kievan Rus' were mostly made up of forests and steppes (seeEast European forest steppeandCentral European mixed forests), while its main rivers all originated in theValdai Hills:theDnieper,and primarily populated bySlavicandFinnic tribes.All tribes werehunter-gatherersto a certain degree, but the Slavs were primarily agriculturalists, growing cereal grains and crops, as well as raising livestock.Before the emergence of the Kievan state, these tribes had their own leaders and gods, and interaction between tribes was occasionally marked either by trading goods or fighting battles.The most valuable commodities traded were captive slaves and fur pelts (usually in exchange for silver coins or oriental finery), and common trade partners wereVolgaBolghar,KhazarItilandByzantineChersonesus.By the early 9th century, bands of Scandinavian adventurers known asVarangiansand laterRus'started plundering various (Slavic) villages in the region, later extracting tribute in exchange for protection against pillaging by other Varangians.Over time, these relationships of tribute for protection evolved into more permanent political structures: the Rus' lords became princes and the Slavic populace their subjects.

Economy

Further information:Money of Kievan Rus'

Gathering tribute.1908 painting byNicholas Roerich.

In the early 10th century, Kievan Rus' mainly traded with other tribes inEastern EuropeandScandinavia."There was little need for complex social structures to carry out these exchanges in the forests north of the steppes. So long as the entrepreneurs operated in small numbers and kept to the north, they did not catch the attention of observers or writers". The Rus' also had strong trading ties toByzantium,particularly in the early 900s, as treaties in 911 and 944 indicate. These treaties deal with the treatment of runaway Byzantine slaves and limitations on the amounts of certain commodities such assilkthat could be bought from Byzantium. The Rus' used log rafts floated down theDnieper RiverbySlavictribes for the transport of goods, particularlyslaves to Byzantium.

During the Kievan era, trade and transport depended largely on networks of rivers and portages.By this period, trade networks had expanded to cater to more than just local demand. This is evidenced by a survey of glassware found in over 30 sites ranging from Suzdal, Drutsk and Belozeroo, which found that a substantial majority was manufactured in Kiev. Kiev was the main depot and transit point for trade between itself,Byzantiumand theBlack Searegion. Even though this trade network had already been existent, the volume of which had expanded rapidly in the 11th century. Kiev was also dominant in internal trade between the towns of Rus'; it held a monopoly on glassware products (glass vessels, glazed pottery and window glass) up until the early- to mid-12th century until which it lost its monopoly to the other towns in Rus'. Inlaidenamelproduction techniques was borrowed from Byzantine. Byzantine amphorae, wine and olive oil have been found along the middle Dnieper, suggesting trade between Kiev, along trade towns to Byzantium.

In winter, the ruler of Kiev went out on rounds, visitingDregovichs,Krivichs,Drevlians,Severians,and other subordinated tribes. Some paid tribute in money, some in furs or other commodities, and some in slaves. This system was calledpoliudie.

Religion

Further information:Culture of Kievan Rus' § Religion,andConversion of Vladimir the Great

Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk(rebuilt in the mid-18th century after destruction by the Russian army)

Cathedral of St. Sophia, Novgorod,mid-11th century

Dormition Cathedral, Vladimir,1160

According to Martin (2009), 'Christianity, Judaism, and Islam had long been known in these lands, andOlgapersonally converted to Christianity. WhenVladimirassumed the throne, however, he set idols of Norse, Slav, Finn, and Iranian gods, worshipped by the disparate elements of his society, on a hilltop in Kiev in an attempt to create a single pantheon for his people. But for reasons that remain unclear he soon abandoned this attempt in favour of Christianity.'

Architecture

Main article:Architecture of Kievan Rus'

See also:List of buildings of pre-Mongol Kievan Rus'

The architecture of Kievan Rus' is the earliest period of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian architecture, using the foundations of Byzantine culture, but with great use of innovations and architectural features. Most remains are Russian Orthodox churches or parts of the gates and fortifications of cities.

Administrative divisions

See also:List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine

Kievan Rus' in 1015–1113

The East Slavic lands were originally divided into princely domains calledzemlias,"lands", orvolosts(from a term meaning "power" or "government" ).A smaller clan-sized unit was called averv,orpogost,headed by akopaorviche.

From the 11th to 13th centuries the principalities were divided intovolosts,its centre usually called apryhorod(orGorda fortified settlement).A volost consisted of severalvervsorhromadas(commune or community).A local official was called avolostelorstarosta.

Yaroslav the Wiseassigned priority to the major principalities to reduce familial conflict oversuccession.

1. Principality of Kievand Novgorod, for the eldest sonIziaslav I of Kiev,who became grand prince.
2. Principality of ChernigovandTmutarakan,forSviatoslav II of Kiev
3. Principality of PereyaslavlandRostov-Suzdal,forVsevolod I of Kiev
4. Principality of Smolensk,forVyacheslav Yaroslavich
5. Principality of Volhynia,forIgor Yaroslavich

Not mentioned by Yaroslav werePrincipality of Polotsk,ruled by Yaroslav's older brotherIziaslav of Polotskthat was to remain under the control of his descendants, and thePrincipality of Galicia,eventually taken by the dynasty of his grandson Rostyslav.

Foreign relations

Military history

Further information:List of wars involving Kievan Rus'

This section is an excerpt fromMilitary of Kievan Rus'.[edit]

Druzhyna:princely cavalry.

The military of Kievan Rus'served as the armed forces of Kievan Rus' between the 9th to 13th century. It was mainly characterised by infantry armies of townmilitiathat were supported bydruzhynacavalry.

Steppe peoples

From the 9th century on, thePechenegnomads had an uneasy relationship with Kievan Rus'. For over two centuries they launched sporadic raids into Rus', which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars, such as the 920 war on the Pechenegs by Igor of Kiev, reported in thePrimary Chronicle,but there were also temporary military alliances e.g., the 943 Byzantine campaign by Igor.In 968, the Pechenegsattacked and besieged the city of Kiev.

Boniakwas aCumankhanwho led a series of invasions on Kievan Rus'. In 1096, Boniak attacked Kiev, plundered theKiev Monastery of the Caves,and burned down the prince's palace inBerestovo.He was defeated in 1107 byVladimir Monomakh,Oleg, Sviatopolk and other princes of Rus'.

Byzantine Empire

See also:Rus'–Byzantine War

Byzantium quickly became the maintradingand cultural partner for Kiev, but relations were not always friendly. One of the largest military accomplishments of the Rurikid dynasty was the attack on Byzantium in 960. Pilgrims of the Rus' had been making the journey fromKievtoConstantinoplefor many years, andConstantine Porphyrogenitus,the Emperor of theByzantine Empire,believed that this gave them significant information about the arduous parts of the journey and where travelers were most at risk, as would be pertinent for an invasion. This route took travelers through domain of thePechenegs,journeying mostly by river. In June 941, the Rus' staged a naval ambush on Byzantine forces, making up for their smaller numbers with small, maneuverable boats. These boats were ill-equipped for the transportation of large quantities of treasure, suggesting that looting was not the goal. The raid was led, according to thePrimary Chronicle,by a king called Igor. Three years later, the treaty of 944 stated that all ships approaching Byzantium must be preceded by a letter from the Rurikid prince stating the number of ships and assuring their peaceful intent. This not only indicates fear of another surprise attack, but an increased Kievan presence in theBlack Sea.

Mongols

See also:Schechter LetterandMongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

The sacking ofSuzdalbyBatu Khan

TheMongol Empireinvaded Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, devastating numerous cities, includingRyazan,Kolomna,Moscow,Vladimirand Kiev. Thesiege of Kievin 1240 by the Mongols is generally understood as the end of Kievan Rus'.Batu Khanwent on to subjugate Galicia and Volhynia, raid Poland and Hungary, and founded theGolden Hordeat Sarai in 1242.The conquests mostly halted due to a succession crisis following khanOgedei's death, leading Batu to return to Mongolia to select the clan's next overlord.

Historical assessment

The field ofIgor Svyatoslavich's battle with thePolovtsy,byViktor Vasnetsov

Kievan Rus', although sparsely populated compared to Western Europe,was not only the largest contemporary European state in terms of area but also culturally advanced.Literacy in Kiev, Novgorod and other large cities was high.Novgorod had asewage systemandwood pavementnot often found in other cities at the time.TheRusskaya Pravdaconfined punishments to fines and generally did not usecapital punishment.Certainrightswere accorded to women, such as property andinheritancerights.

The economic development of Kievan Rus' may be reflected in its demographics. Scholarly estimates of Kiev's population around 1200 range from 36,000 to 50,000 (at the time, Paris had about 50,000, and London 30,000).Novgorod had about 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants in 1000, and about double that number by 1200, while Chernigov had a larger land area than both Kiev and Novgorod at the time, and is therefore estimated have had even more inhabitants.Constantinople, then one of the largest cities in the world, had a population of about 400,000 around 1180.Soviet scholarMikhail Tikhomirovcalculated that Kievan Rus' had around 300 urban centres on the eve of the Mongol invasion.

Kievan Rus' also played an important genealogical role in European politics.Yaroslav the Wise,whose stepmother belonged to theMacedonian dynastythat ruled the Byzantine Empire from 867 to 1056, married the only legitimate daughter of the king who Christianized Sweden. His daughters became queens of Hungary, France and Norway; his sons married the daughters of aPolish kingand Byzantine emperor, and a niece of the Pope; and his granddaughters were a German empress and (according to one theory) the queen ofScotland.A grandson married the only daughter of the lastAnglo-Saxonking of England. Thus theRurikidswere a well-connected royal family of the time.

Serhii Plokhy(2006) proposed to "denationalize" Kievan Rus': contrary to what modern nationalist interpretations had been doing, he argued for 'separating Kievan Rus' as a multi-ethnic state from the national histories of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. This applies to the word Rus' and to the concept of the Rus' Land.'According to Halperin (2010), 'Plokhy's approach does not invalidate analysis of rival claims by Muscovy, Lithuania or Ukraine to the Kievan inheritance; it merely relegates such pretensions entirely to the realm of ideology.'

In popular culture

• Finnishfolk metalbandTurisashas produced various songs on its albumsThe Varangian Way(2007) andStand Up and Fight(2011) which feature Scandinavian names (Jarisleifin "In the Court of Jarisleif" forGrand Prince Yaroslav) andOld Norse exonymsfor toponyms (such asHolmgardin "To Holmgard and Beyond"forVeliky Novgorod,andMiklagardin "Miklagard Overture" forConstantinople) connected to Kievan Rus'. According to Bosselmann (2018) and DiGioia (2020),Scandinavian namesare used by Turisas 'as a way to convey the historical context of the songs' subject matter', namely 'the stories of theScandinavian pre-Christianpopulations and their travels eastwards along the way known as theWay of the Varangians to the Greekto Constantinople'.

Gallery

Collection of maps

• 
  Map of 8th- to 9th-century Rus' by Leonard Chodzko (1861)
• 
  Map of 9th-century Rus' by Antoine Philippe Houze (1844)
• 
  Map of 9th-century Rus' by F. S. Weller (1893)
• 
  Map of Rus' in Europe in 1000 (1911)
• 
  Map of Rus' in 1097 (1911)
• 
  Map of 1139 byJoachim Lelewel;northeast is identified as "trans-forest colonies" (Zalesie)
• 
  Fragment of the 1154Tabula RogerianabyMuhammad al-Idrisi
• 
  Overview of principalities of Kievan Rus'

Art and architecture

• 
  Ship burialof aRus'chieftain as described by theArabtravelerAhmad ibn Fadlan,who visitednorth-easternEuropein the 10th century.
  Henryk Siemiradzki(1883)
• 
  Model of the originalSaint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv;used on modern2 hryvniof Ukraine
• 
  The Nativity,a Kievan (possibly Galician) illumination from theGertrude Psalter
• 
  Rider armor and horse equipment. Iron, 12th–13th centuries, S. Lipovets, Kiev province, mound 264, military burial. State Hermitage Museum.

See also

• De Administrando Imperio– 10th-century Byzantine source written by emperorConstantine VII
• History of Belarus
• History of Russia
• History of Ukraine
• Rus' chronicle– genre of Old East Slavic literature
• Slavic studies
• European Russia

References

Primary sources

• Cross, Samuel Hazzard; Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Olgerd P. (1930).The Russian Primary Chronicle, Laurentian Text. Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (1930)(PDF).Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America. p. 325.Retrieved26 January2023.
  • Cross, Samuel Hazzard; Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Olgerd P. (2013) [1953].SLA 218. Ukrainian Literature and Culture. Excerpts from The Rus' Primary Chronicle (Povest vremennykh let, PVL)(PDF).Toronto: Electronic Library of Ukrainian Literature, University of Toronto. p. 16. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 30 May 2014.Retrieved26 January2023.

Secondary sources

• Bushkovitch, Paul (2011).A Concise History of Russia.New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 491.ISBN9781139504447.Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2023.Retrieved26 January2023.
• Gleason, Abbott(2009).A Companion to Russian History.Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p. 566.ISBN9781444308426.Retrieved26 January2023.
  • Martin, Janet (2009a). "Chapter Three: The First East Slavic State".A Companion to Russian History.Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 34–50.ISBN9781444308426.Retrieved26 January2023.
  • Majeska, George (2009). "Chapter Four: Rus' and the Byzantine Empire".A Companion to Russian History.Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 51–65.ISBN9781444308426.Retrieved26 January2023.
• Katchanovski, Ivan;Kohut, Zenon E.;Nesebio, Bohdan Y.; Yurkevich, Myroslav (2013).Historical Dictionary of Ukraine.Lanham, Maryland;Toronto;Plymouth:Scarecrow Press. p. 992.ISBN9780810878471.Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2023.Retrieved22 January2023.
• Logan, F. Donald(2005).The Vikings in History.New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). p. 205.ISBN9780415327565.Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2023.Retrieved26 January2023.(third edition)
• Magocsi, Paul R.(2010).A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples.Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 896.ISBN978-1-4426-1021-7.Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2023.Retrieved26 January2023.
• Martin, Janet (1993).Medieval Russia: 980–1584.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0521368324.(original). Later editions cited in this article:
  • Martin, Janet (1995).Medieval Russia: 980–1584.New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0521362768.(first published)
  • Martin, Janet (2004).Medieval Russia: 980–1584.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521368322.Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2023.Retrieved11 October2015.(digital printing 2004)
  • Martin, Janet(2007).Medieval Russia: 980–1584. Second Edition. E-book.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-511-36800-4.
• Martin, Janet (2009b). "From Kiev to Muscovy: The Beginnings to 1450". In Freeze, Gregory (ed.).Russia: A History.Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–30.ISBN978-0-19-150121-0.Archivedfrom the original on 27 January 2023.Retrieved27 January2023.(third edition)
• Ostrogorsky, George(1969).History of the Byzantine State.New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 760.Retrieved26 January2023.
• Plokhy, Serhii(2006).The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus(PDF).New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–15.ISBN978-0-521-86403-9.Archived(PDF)from the original on 6 June 2011.Retrieved27 April2010.
  • Halperin, Charles J. (2010)."Review Article." National Identity in Premodern Rus' "".Russian History (Brill journal).37(3). Brill Publishers: 275–294.doi:10.1163/187633110X510446.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2023.Retrieved2 February2023.
• Ostrowski, Donald (2018)."Was There a Riurikid Dynasty in Early Rus'?".Canadian-American Slavic Studies.52(1): 30–49.doi:10.1163/22102396-05201009.
• Vernadsky, George(1973)."Russian Civilization in the Kievan Period: Education".Kievan Russia.Yale University Press. p. 412.ISBN0-300-01647-6.
• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Country Studies.Federal Research Division.–RussiaArchived11 July 2012 atarchive.today

Further reading

Main articles:Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'andBibliography of Ukrainian history

• Christian, David.A History of Russia, Mongolia and Central Asia.Blackwell, 1999.
• Franklin, Simon and Shepard, Jonathan,The Emergence of Rus, 750–1200.(Longman History of Russia, general editor Harold Shukman.) Longman, London, 1996.ISBN0-582-49091-X
• Fennell, John,The Crisis of Medieval Russia, 1200–1304.(Longman History of Russia, general editor Harold Shukman.) Longman, London, 1983.ISBN0-582-48150-3
• Jones, Gwyn.A History of the Vikings.2nd ed. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1984.
• Obolensky, Dimitri(1974) [1971].The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453.London: Cardinal.ISBN978-0-351-17644-9.
• Pritsak, Omeljan.The Origin of Rus'.Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1991.
• Stang, Håkon.The Naming of Russia.Meddelelser, Nr. 77. Oslo: University of Oslo Slavisk-baltisk Avelding, 1996.
• Alexander F. Tsvirkun E-learning course. History of Ukraine. Journal Auditorium, Kyiv, 2010.
• Velychenko, Stephen,National history as cultural process: a survey of the interpretations of Ukraine's past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian historical writing from the earliest times to 1914.Edmonton, 1992.
• Velychenko, Stephen, "Nationalizing and Denationalizing the Past. Ukraine and Russia in Comparative Context", Ab Imperio 1 (2007).
• Velychenko, Stephen "New wine old bottle. Ukrainian history Muscovite-Russian Imperial myths and the Cambridge-History of Russia,"Stephen Velychenko. New Wine Old Bottle. Ukrainian History, Muscovite /Russian Imperial Myths and the Cambridge History of Russia

External links

• Historical map of Kievan Rus' from 980. to 1054.
• Historical map of Kievan Rus' from 1220. to 1240.
• Graphic History of Kievan Rus' from c. 800 to 988at theWayback Machine(archived 9 November 2013)
• Rus'–Encyclopedia of Ukraine
• Chronology of Kievan Rus' 859–1240.