Wikipedia

Kobzar

For the collection of poems by Taras Shevchenko, seeKobzar (book).

Akobzar(Ukrainian:кобзар,pl.kobzariUkrainian:кобзарі) was an itinerant Ukrainianbardwho sang to his own accompaniment, played on a multistringedkobzaorbandura.

Slobozhan kobzar P. Drevchenko and Poltava kobzar M. Kravchenko inKharkiv1902

Tradition

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Kozak Mamai playing a kobza

The professional kobzar tradition was established during theHetmanate Eraaround the sixteenth century inUkraine.[1]Kobzari were often blind and became predominantly so by the 1800s.Kobzarliterally means 'kobzaplayer', a Ukrainian stringed instrument of thelutefamily, and more broadly — a performer of the musical material associated with the kobzar tradition.[2][3]Kobzari also played thebandura,an instrument which was likely developed from thekobza.[4]

Kozak Mamai and early origins

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Further information:Cossack_Mamay

Kozak Mamai(Ukrainian:Козак Мамай) is a popular and iconic image that has many variants, but usually features a man sitting cross-legged and playing akobza.[4]The hairstyle is often achuprynaof Kozak style.[4]Various items often surround Kozak Mamai including a horse, a tree, a rifle, a sword, and a gunpowder horn, and sometimes a bottle and cup.[4]Sometimes other individuals such as a woman or other kozaks surround Kozak Mamai, who is deep in thought and reflection.[4]While the historical certainty of this image cannot be established, it represents the assumption that the original composers and singers ofdumywere military musicians associated with theKozaks.[4]

Blindness

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While prior to the 1800s, there is evidence of performers able to see, blindness was a requirement to become a kobzar in the 1800s, as the social role of kobzar was both profession and social welfare for those who were unable to contribute to farm work.[4]Only men could become kobzari.[4]

In the 1800s, infant mortality was around 30%, with 40% of children dying before age two.[4]Of those that survived, an unusually high number were blind due to the effects of poor health and disease.[4]

AsNatalie Kononenkowrites, blindness was both a qualification for traditional kobzari, and also part of their effectiveness:

"The restrictions placed on traditional minstrelsy, the restrictions that permitted only blind people to become minstrels and kept ordinary folk from performing a certain set of songs, did not inhibit the profession. Rather, they contributed to its artistic power and especially to its spiritual effectiveness."[5]

Apprenticeship

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In rural life, everyone was expected to contribute to survival, with farm labor being the most important.[6]The blind, unable to help with these tasks aside from rope work, developed an alternate source of income as performers.[6]To learn the necessary skills, blind children could be apprenticed to a professional beggar, either akobzarorlirnyk.[6]The first stage of training consisted of how to physically live and survive in the world being blind.[6]Next, the apprentice would learn songs to be performed, and the etiquette of begging.[6]The normal time for an apprenticeship was three years.[6]Training for girls ended with singing; only males were allowed to learn to play instruments and learn to sing epic songs.[6]Because apprentices could not see, they had to be taught to play instruments by touch.[6]

Learning the skills to be akobzartook time and effort, and apprentice needs varied.[6]Apprentices' intelligence and aptitude would affect the length of the apprenticeship.[6]Older students might have a shorter apprenticeship because they'd already learned needed skills for survival while blind.[6]Some apprentices with less aptitude might set out on their own without learning difficult songs includingdumy.[6]Others might seek an additional apprenticeship for additional skills.[6]Upon completing an apprenticeship, apprentices were given the status of minstrel during a secret and closed initiation rite called avyzvilka,following which they were allowed to perform askobzarorlirnyk.[6]

Repertoire

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Songs sang by kobzari can be categorized aszhebranka,psalmy,istorychni pisni,dumy,and satirical songs.[7]Zhebrankawere begging songs often highlighting the fleeting nature of life, a description of life with the disability of blindness, an apology for seeking alms, and a cultural or religious reference to cloth (rushnyky).[7]Psalmywere religious songs, not necessarily psalms, on the subject of the Bible or religion. Likezhebranka,psalmyalso often repeated the theme of the brevity of life, in addition to the afterlife, and hope and help in the form of the women (Mary and Mary Magdalene) and Saint Nicholas (Mykolai).[7]Sometimes these para-liturgical songs are called "kanty."[8]Istorychni pisnianddumyare historical songs of form similar topsalmy,and related historical events and epic stories of Cossack heroes which were important on a personal or national level.[7][1]The satirical songs were not performed by all minstrels, and always outside serious performance.[7]

Social role and travel

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Kobzariwere generally itinerant, tending to have a "circuit" of villages that would be visited regularly, going house to house until finding company that had something to share and welcomed the visit.[9]They would not beg in their own village, and when traveling, would stay in the home of a fellowkobzarorlirnyk.[9]They would sometimes perform at fairs, religious festivals, and weddings.[9]Kobzaritraveled from town to town, sharing news from village to village, functioning as an early form of social media.[8]

Role of guides

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Being blind,kobzariwould often require assistance in their travel, and would often hire a boy or girl to serve as a guide (povodyr).[10]These children were often orphans or disabled themselves so that they likewise could not contribute to farm labor.[10]The guide would often assist thekobzaruntil old enough to learn a skill or trade, which was often making musical instruments due to their experience fromkobzari.[10]Akobzar'sown children might serve as guide while still too young to provide farm labor, though would not usually follow their father into the minstrelry.[10]The children of akobzarwould often try to convince their father to stay home as soon as they were able themselves to earn enough money for them to do so.[10]

Povodyrin film

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In 2014, directorOles Saninreleased a film calledThe Guide(Povodyr) about the guide of akobzarduring the 1930s period of Stalin'sholodomorin Soviet Ukraine.[11]This film was nominated for a best foreign-languageOscar.[12][13][14][15]The plot features a boy whose father is executed by Stalin's secret police and who is subsequently saved by a blind Ukrainian folk minstrel, akobzar.[12][16]

Contribution of women

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Many kobzari were married, and a kobzar with a wife and children was considered normal.[9]

While boys, girls, men, and women could all be blind, only boys and men were allowed to learn and play instruments, and to sing epic poetry or other historical songs with relatively higher professional status.[17]Though girls and women could be taught and allowed to sing, guilds believed men were more in need of money than women in order to support dependents, and as a result prohibited girls and women from performances with instruments or of epic poetry or historic songs (which earned performers more money).[17]Women were considered to have better voices, which compensated for being restricted in what they were allowed to learn and perform.[6]

Though poorly documented, there is evidence that women also learned epic poetry, historical song, and also learned to play the instruments, though they had to do so outside of guilds, and could only perform in the privacy of their homes.[18][19]This privately-held knowledge by women contributed to documentation and preservation of the tradition.[18]

Organization

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Schools

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At the turn of the nineteenth century there were three regional kobzar schools:Chernihiv,Poltava,andSlobozhan,which were differentiated by repertoire and playing style.[1]

Guilds

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In Ukraine,kobzarsorganized themselves into regional guilds or brotherhoods, known astsekhs(tsekhy).[20]They developed a system of rigorous apprenticeships (usually three years in length) before undergoing the first set of open examinations in order to become akobzar.[21][22]Among the marks of professional competence necessary to gain entry to a guild was mastery of a secret guild language known as thelebiiska mova.[23]

These guilds were thought to have been modelled on the Orthodox Church brotherhoods as each guild was associated with a specific church.[22]These guilds then would take care of one church icon or purchase new religious ornaments for their affiliated church (Kononenko, p. 568–9).[24]

Kobzariandlirnyky

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Traditional minstrels from this time period also includedlirnykyorlirnyks,musicians who played theliraorhurdy-gurdy.[25]While some sources suggest thatkobzariwere not always blind,lirnykywere likely disabled, and in general to be considered akobzarorlirnyk,the minstrel was blind.[25]Kobzariandlirnykiwere considered the same category of minstrel, belonging to the same guilds and sharing songs.[25]

End of kobzardom

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Further information:Persecuted bandurists

The institution of the kobzardom essentially ended in theUkrainian SSRin the mid 1930s during Stalin's radical transformation of rural society which included theliquidation of the kobzarsof Ukraine. In the 1930s during the period of theHolodomor,on the order of Stalin, the Soviet authorities called on all Ukrainian Kobzars to attend a congress inKharkiv.Those that arrived were taken outside the city and were all put to death.[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]This event was not covered in the Soviet press which complicates precise documentary evidence.[30][32]

Despite this effort and other efforts to eliminate kobzari through execution, kobzari were found difficult to eliminate.[30]Other tactics used to end kobzardom included required registration of musical instruments, prohibition of begging, restrictions on musical performance, destruction of instruments, and imprisonment without food or water.[30]

Soviet appropriation

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Further information:Soviet kobzars

Kobzar performance was replaced with stylized performances of folk and classical music utilising thebanduraconforming to Marxist-Leninist ideology.[1][32]Rather than learning songs through oral tradition as had the kobzari, only officially approved written texts could be used to learn songs, which were carefully censored and modified to become approved content such as "Duma about Lenin."[33]

Soviet kobzarswere stylised performers on the bandura created to replace the traditional authentic kobzari who had been wiped out in the 1930s.[30]Early Soviet minstrels included Ehor Movchan, Fedir Kushneryk,Evhan Adamtsevych,and Avram Hrebin.[33]These performers were often blind and although some actually had contact with the authentic kobzari of the previous generation, they were mostly self-taught, without apprenticeships, and worked from officially approved written texts.[33]Their successors were likely not aware that oral transmission was possible.[33]

Some received formal training in conservatories.[34][32]Bandura performers during this era often performed in ensembles, different from the kobzari solo tradition.[32]Their repertoire was primarily made up of censored versions of traditional kobzar repertoire and focused on stylized works that praised theSovietsystem and Soviet heroes, including pressure to compose newdumyabout Lenin and Stalin.[1]

Re-establishment of the tradition

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A modern-day kobzar playing a tune on thebandura

In recent times, there has been an interest in reviving of authentic kobzar traditions which is marked by re-establishing theKobzar Guildas a centre for the dissemination of historical authentic performance practice.[35][1][29][36]

While traditionalkobzariwere blind, those reviving the tradition tend to be young, able to see, and with a focus on Ukrainian independence, seeking to celebrate Ukraine's history and nationhood.[32]

Preservation of kobzar music

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Further information:Preservation of kobzar music

The idea of thepreservation of kobzar musicby means ofsound recordingoriginated in 1901–02.

The12th Archeological Congresswas held inKharkiv,now inUkraine,then part of theRussian Empire.It was dedicated toUkrainian folk music.During its preparation, the committee discussed a letter from Russian ethnographerVsevolod Millerwith the suggestion to using recently inventedgraphophone(Alexander Bell's version ofphonograph,which used wax-coated cylinders). However, the suggestion was not accepted due to lack of money. Other people came with the same suggestion, both during the preparation and the sessions of the congress.[37]

A team ofHnat Khotkevych(musicologist,bandurist,engineer, and ethnographer),Oleksandr Borodai(engineer and bandurist), andOpanas Slastion(artist and ethnographer), have eventually taken the job. Borodai bought several phonographs in America for his own money. The first records were taken fordumasof the noted kobzarMykhailo Kravchenko.However due to the conflict between Borodai and Khotkevych[38]their work stopped in 1904.[39][40]The work was restarted by the initiative Kvitka family,Kliment Kvitkaand poetLesya Ukrayinka,who put their money into the project. In 1908 they invited Ukrainian ethnographerFilaret Kolessato do the job.[39][41][40]

In later times there were attempts to recast the phonograph records bytape recordingthe phonograph playback. With the breakthroughs in non-destructive reading of wax cylinders, there were renewed attempts. In 2013, a member of theWikimedia Ukraineteam Yuri Bulka and folklorist Irina Dovgalyuk (who did research on Kolessa's collection[42]) used a Wikimedia grant todigitize56 cylinders and make the records available under theCreative Commonslicense.[40]

In 1910 and 1913 Kolessa published two books of music deciphered from the collected phonograms. They were re-issued in 1969 as a bookМелодії українських народних дум(Tunes of the Ukrainian Folk Dumas), now available in "crowd-digitized" form.[43]

Other use of the term

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Kobzaris a seminal book of poetry byTaras Shevchenko,the great national poet ofUkraine.[44]

The term "kobzar" has on occasion been used forhurdy-gurdyplayers inBelarus(where the hurdy-gurdy is often referred to as a "kobza", andbagpipeplayers inPolandwhere the bagpipe is referred to as a "kobza" or "koza" ).[citation needed]

See also

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References

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  1. ^abcdef"The Kobzar-Lirnyk Tradition".honchar.org.ua.Retrieved2023-11-27.
  2. ^Volodymyr Kushpet "Startsivstvo", 500pp, Kyiv "Tempora" 2007
  3. ^Rainer Maria Rilke, Susan Ranson, Ben Hutchinson(2008),Rainer Maria Rilke's The book of hours,Camden House. p. 215.ISBN1-57113-380-1
  4. ^abcdefghijKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 45–48.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  5. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. p. 198.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  6. ^abcdefghijklmnoKononenko, Natalie O. (2019).Ukrainian epic and historical song: folklore in context.Toronto Buffalo London: University of Toronto Press. pp. 56–72.ISBN978-1-4875-0263-8.
  7. ^abcdeKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 16–26.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  8. ^ab"PNW Kobzar Project in concert -" Solace on Rainy Days "| Stage 7 Pianos, Kirkland, WA | December 2, 2023".happeningnext.com.Retrieved2023-11-27.
  9. ^abcdKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 9–15.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  10. ^abcdeKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 10–15.ISBN978-0-7656-0145-2.
  11. ^Kay2014-12-04T04:24:00+00:00, Jeremy."Oles Sanin, The Guide".Screen.Retrieved2024-01-21.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  12. ^abHoldsworth, Nick (2014-09-09)."Oscars: Ukraine Nominates Oles Sanin's 'The Guide' for Foreign-Language Category".The Hollywood Reporter.Retrieved2024-01-21.
  13. ^Goldsmith, Jill (2022-03-14)."U.S. Theaters From Regal To Indies Will Play 2014 Ukrainian Film 'The Guide' Starting Friday With Proceeds Going To Relief Effort".Deadline.Retrieved2024-01-21.
  14. ^"The Guide (Поводир) 2014 in English Online".Eastern European Movies on English Online.2020-03-12.Retrieved2024-01-21.
  15. ^Editors, World Cinema Reports' (2014-12-04)."An interview with Oles Sanin about THE GUIDE, Ukraine's OSCAR Entry".Cinema Without Borders.Retrieved2024-01-21.{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help)
  16. ^Punzi, Ludovica Punzi (2022-03-22)."Banduras for the Blind: Minstrels, Epic Song, and the Ukrainian Culture of Resistance".Early Music Seattle.Retrieved2024-01-24.
  17. ^abKononenko, Natalie O. (2019).Ukrainian epic and historical song: folklore in context.Toronto Buffalo London: University of Toronto Press. p. 67.ISBN978-1-4875-0263-8.
  18. ^abKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 63–64.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  19. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (2019).Ukrainian epic and historical song: folklore in context.Toronto Buffalo London: University of Toronto Press. pp. 67–68.ISBN978-1-4875-0263-8.
  20. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 66–85.ISBN978-0-7656-0145-2.
  21. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 86–107.ISBN978-0-7656-0145-2.
  22. ^abKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. p. 67.ISBN978-0-7656-0145-2.
  23. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 72–74.ISBN978-0-7656-0145-2.
  24. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 74–75.ISBN978-0-7656-0145-2.
  25. ^abcKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. p. 9.ISBN978-0-7656-0145-2.
  26. ^‘Remember the peasantry’: A study of genocide, famine, and the Stalinist Holodomor in Soviet Ukraine, 1932-33, as it was remembered by post-war immigrants in Western Australia who experienced itLesa Melnyczuk Morgan, 2010, University of Notre Dame Australia"During the mid-1930s, the [kobzars] were invited to the First All-Ukrainian Congress of Lirniki and Banduristy (folk singers, minstrels) where they were arrested and, in most cases shot".In the notes: "Although noted by a few different authors there is no mention of where this occurred." Accessed 8 February 2021
  27. ^Robert Conquest,The Harvest of Sorrow.Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine., p.266.ISBN0195051807
  28. ^Volkov Solomon, ed. Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich (New York: Faber & Faber,1979), pp.214-15.ISBN978-0060144760
  29. ^ab"How an American expat pulled the Ukrainian art of Kobzaring back from the brink of extinction".Euromaidan Press.2021-05-07.Retrieved2023-11-27.
  30. ^abcde"The destruction of Ukraine's folk singers".Euromaidan Press.2015-12-09.Retrieved2023-11-27.
  31. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. p. 116.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  32. ^abcdefKononenko, Natalie O. (2019).Ukrainian epic and historical song: folklore in context.Toronto Buffalo London: University of Toronto Press. pp. 90–92.ISBN978-1-4875-0263-8.
  33. ^abcdKononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 114–117.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  34. ^Kononenko, Natalie O. (1998).Ukrainian minstrels: and the blind shall sing.Folklores and folk cultures of Eastern Europe. Armonk, N.Y. London: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 5–9.ISBN978-0-7656-0144-5.
  35. ^"Кобзарський Цех | Музей Івана Гончара".Retrieved2023-11-27.
  36. ^Hayda, Julian (June 1, 2022)."War isn't dampening artists' determination to revive Indigenous Ukrainian music".NPR.RetrievedNovember 27,2003.
  37. ^Irina Dovgalyuk,"ОПАНАС СЛАСТЬОН В ІСТОРІЇ ФОНОГРАФУВАННЯ КОБЗАРСЬКО-ЛІРНИЦЬКОЇ ТРАДИЦІЇ"Archived2014-09-06 at theWayback Machine,Visnyk Lviv. Univ. Ser. Art Studies. 2011. № 10. Р. 3–20; contains extensive bibliography of the sound recording of kobzars
  38. ^NoteBorodai was expected to sponsor Khotkevych's textbook on kobza playing
  39. ^abДовгалюк Ірина. Причинки до історії проекту фонографування дум // Етномузика: збірка статей та матеріалів / упорядники Ірина Довгалюк, Юрій Рибак. – Львів, 2008. – Ч.5. – С.9-26. – (Наукові збірки Львівської національної музичної академії ім.М.Лисенка. – Вип.22)
  40. ^abc"Ученые оцифровали кобзарские песни, записанные 100 лет назад"( "Scientist Digitized Kobzar Songs Recorder 100 Years Ago" ),Корреспондент(Correspondentmagazine), no. 34, August 29, 2014
  41. ^"Леся Українка оплатила записи дум від кобзарів",gazeta.ua,14 липня 2011
  42. ^Довгалюк Ірина. "Фонографічні валики в архіві Філарета Колесси" // Етномузика: збірка статей та матеріалів / упорядник Богдан Луканюк. – Львів, 2011. – Ч.7. – С. 101-115. – (Наукові збірки Львівської національної академії ім.М.Лисенка. – Вип. 26
  43. ^Колесса Ф. М. Мелодiї Українських народних дум (1969) /pdf, djvu/ Оцифровано Гуртом
  44. ^"Book of the Week: Kobzar by Taras Shevchenko".Idler.Retrieved2023-11-27.
  • Kononenko, Natalie O. “The Influence of the Orthodox Church on Ukrainian Dumy.”Slavic Review50 (1991): 566–75.
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