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TheKorean War(25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on theKorean Peninsulafought betweenNorth Korea(Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) andSouth Korea(Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was supported by thePeople's Republic of Chinaand theSoviet Union,while South Korea was supported by theUnited Nations Command(UNC) led by theUnited States.The conflict was one of the first majorproxy warsof theCold War.Fighting ended in 1953 with anarmisticebut nopeace treaty,leading to the ongoingKorean conflict.
| Korean War | |||||||||
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| Part of theCold Warand theKorean conflict | |||||||||
Clockwise from top left:
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 South Korea |
 North Korea | ||||||||
 United Nations[a] | |||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
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Peak strength (combat troops): |
Total: 2,970,000[20] 72,000[19]Together:3,042,000 | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
After the end ofWorld War IIin 1945, Korea, which had been aJapanese colonyfor 35 years, wasdividedby the Soviet Union and the United States into two occupation zones[c]at the38th parallel,with plans for a future independent state. Due to political disagreements and influence from their backers, the zones formed their own governments in 1948. North Korea was led byKim Il SunginPyongyang,and South Korea bySyngman RheeinSeoul;both claimed to be the solelegitimategovernment of all of Korea and engaged in border clashes as internal unrest was fomented by communist groups in the south. On 25 June 1950, theKorean People's Army(KPA), equipped and trained by the Soviets, launched an invasion of the south. In the absence of the Soviet Union's representative,[d]theUN Security Councildenouncedthe attack andrecommendedmember states to repel the invasion.[24]UN forces comprised 21 countries, with the United States providing around 90% of military personnel.[25][26]
Seoul was captured by the KPA on 28 June, and by early August, theRepublic of Korea Army(ROKA) and its allies were nearly defeated, holding onto only thePusan Perimeterin the peninsula's southeast. On 15 September, UN forceslanded at Inchonnear Seoul, cutting off KPA troops and supply lines. UN forces broke out from the perimeter on 18 September, re-captured Seoul, andinvaded North Koreain October, capturing Pyongyang and advancing towards theYalu River—the border with China. On 19 October, the ChinesePeople's Volunteer Army(PVA) crossed the Yalu and entered the war on the side of the north.[27]UN forces retreated from North Koreain December, following the PVA'sfirstandsecond offensive.Communist forcescaptured Seoulagain in January 1951 before losing it toa UN counter-offensivetwo months later. After an abortiveChinese spring offensive,UN forcesretook territoryroughly up to the 38th parallel. Armistice negotiations began in July 1951, but dragged on as the fighting became awar of attritionand the north suffered heavy damagefrom U.S. bombing.
Combat ended on 27 July 1953 with the signing of theKorean Armistice Agreement,which allowed the exchange of prisoners and created a 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) wideDemilitarized Zone(DMZ) along the frontline, with aJoint Security AreaatPanmunjom.The conflict caused more than 1 million military deaths and an estimated 2-to-3 million civilian deaths.Alleged war crimesinclude themass killing of suspected communistsby Seoul and the torture and starvation ofprisoners of warby Pyongyang. North Korea became one of the most heavily bombed countries in history,[28]and virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed.[29]No peace treaty has been signed, making the war afrozen conflict.[30][31]
Names
| Korean War | |||||||
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| South Korean name | |||||||
| Hangul | 6·25 전쟁 or 한국 전쟁 | ||||||
| Hanja | Lục nhị ngũ chiến tranh or hàn quốc chiến tranh | ||||||
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| North Korean name | |||||||
| Chosŏn'gŭl | 조국해방전쟁 | ||||||
| Hancha | Tổ quốc giải phóng chiến tranh | ||||||
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In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as the "625 War" (6·25 전쟁;Lục nhị ngũ chiến tranh), the "625 Upheaval" (6·25 동란;Lục nhị ngũ động loạn;yugio dongnan), or simply "625", reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.[32]
In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as theFatherland Liberation War(Choguk haebang chŏnjaeng) or theChosŏn[Korean]War(조선전쟁;Chosŏn chŏnjaeng).[33]
In mainland China, the segment of the war after the intervention of thePeople's Volunteer Armyis commonly and officially known as the "Resisting America and Assisting Korea War"[34](Chinese:Kháng mỹ viện triều chiến tranh;pinyin:Kàngměi Yuáncháo Zhànzhēng), although the term "ChosŏnWar "(Chinese:Triều tiên chiến tranh;pinyin:Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng) is sometimes used unofficially. The term "Hán(Korean) War "(Chinese:Hàn chiến;pinyin:Hán Zhàn) is most used inTaiwan(Republic of China),Hong KongandMacau.
In the US, the war was initially described by PresidentHarry S. Trumanas a "police action"as the US never formally declared war and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the UN.[35]It has been sometimes referred to in theEnglish-speaking worldas "The Forgotten War" or "The Unknown War" because of the lack of public attention it received relative to World War II and theVietnam War.[36][37]
Background
Imperial Japanese rule (1910–1945)
Imperial Japandiminished the influence ofChinaover Korea in theFirst Sino-Japanese War(1894–95).[38]A decade later, after defeatingImperial Russiain theRusso-Japanese War,Japan made the Korean Empire itsprotectoratewith theEulsa Treatyin 1905, then annexed it with theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1910.[39]
ManyKorean nationalistsfled the country. TheProvisional Government of the Republic of Koreawas founded in 1919 inNationalist China.It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite the nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its US-based founding president,Syngman Rhee.[40]
In China, the nationalistNational Revolutionary Armyand the communistPeople's Liberation Army(PLA) helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist-backed Koreans, led byYi Pom-Sok,fought in theBurma campaign(1941-45). The communists, led by, among others,Kim Il Sung,fought the Japanese in Korea andManchuria.[41]At theCairo Conferencein 1943, China, the UK, and the US decided that "in due course, Korea shall become free and independent".[42]
Korea divided (1945–1949)
At theTehran Conferencein 1943 and theYalta Conferencein February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join itsalliesin thePacific Warwithin three months of thevictory in Europe.The USSR declared war on Japanandinvaded Manchuriaon 8 August 1945.[43][44]On 10 August, Soviet forces entered northern Korea and secured most major cities in the north by 24 August.[45]: 82 Japanese resistance was light.[45]: 82 Having fought Japan on Korean soil, the Soviet forces were well-received by Koreans.[45]: 82
On 10 August inWashington,US ColonelsDean RuskandCharles H. Bonesteel IIIwere assigned to divide Korea into Soviet and US occupation zones and proposed the38th parallelas the dividing line. This was incorporated into the USGeneral Order No. 1,which responded to theJapanese surrenderon 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "Even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U. S. [sic] forces in the event of Soviet disagreement... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops ".[46][47]Joseph Stalin,however, maintained his wartime policy of cooperation, and on 16 August, the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of US forces.[48]
On 7 September 1945, GeneralDouglas MacArthurissued Proclamation No. 1 to the people of Korea, announcing US military control over Korea south of the 38th parallel and establishing English as the official language during military control.[49]On 8 September, US Lieutenant GeneralJohn R. Hodgearrived inIncheonto accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel.[50]Appointed as military governor, Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of theUnited States Army Military Government in Korea(USAMGIK 1945–48).[51]
In December 1945, Korea was administered by aUS–Soviet Union Joint Commission,as agreed at theMoscow Conference,to grant independence after a five-year trusteeship.[52][53]Waiting five years for independence was unpopular among Koreans, and riots broke out.[39]To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and People's Committees on 12 December.[54]Following further civilian unrest,[55]the USAMGIK declaredmartial law.
Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the US government decided[when?]to hold an election under UN auspices to create an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and Korean communists refused to cooperate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it.[56][57]The1948 South Korean general electionwas held in May.[58][59]The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July and elected Syngman Rhee aspresidenton 20 July. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948.
In the Soviet-Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviets agreed to the establishment of a communist government[58]led by Kim Il Sung.[60]The1948 North Korean parliamentary electionstook place in August.[61]The Soviet Union withdrew its forces in 1948 and the US in 1949.[62][63]
Chinese Civil War (1945–1949)
With the end of thewar with Japan,theChinese Civil Warresumed in earnest between theCommunistsand theNationalist-led government. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government withmatérieland manpower.[64]According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese PLA during the war.[65]North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.[64]As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans who served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea.[64]China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.[66]
Communist insurgency in South Korea (1948–1950)
This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(November 2024) |
By 1948, a North Korea-backed insurgency had broken out in the southern half of the peninsula. This was exacerbated by the undeclared border war between the Koreas, which saw division-level engagements and thousands of deaths on both sides.[67][additional citation(s) needed]The ROK was almost entirely trained and focused on counterinsurgency, rather than conventional warfare. They were equipped and advised by a force of a few hundred American officers, who were successful in helping the ROKA to subdue guerrillas and hold its own againstNorth Korean military(Korean People's Army, KPA) forces along the 38th parallel.[68]Approximately 8,000 South Korean soldiers and police officers died in the insurgent war and border clashes.[69]
Thefirst socialist uprisingoccurred without direct North Korean participation, though the guerrillas still professed support for the northern government. Beginning in April 1948 onJeju Island,the campaign saw arrests and repression by the South Korean government in the fight against the South Korean Labor Party, resulting in 30,000 violent deaths, among them 14,373 civilians, of whom ~2,000 were killed by rebels and ~12,000 by ROK security forces. TheYeosu–Suncheon rebellionoverlapped with it, as several thousand army defectors waving red flags massacred right-leaning families. This resulted in another brutal suppression by the government and between 2,976 and 3,392 deaths. By May 1949, both uprisings had been crushed.[citation needed]
Insurgency reignited in the spring of 1949 when attacks by guerrillas in the mountainous regions (buttressed by army defectors and North Korean agents) increased.[citation needed]Insurgent activity peaked in late 1949 as the ROKA engaged so-called People's Guerrilla Units. Organized and armed by the North Korean government, and backed by 2,400 KPA commandos who had infiltrated through the border, these guerrillas launched an offensive in September aimed at undermining the South Korean government and preparing the country for the KPA's arrival in force. This offensive failed.[70][additional citation(s) needed]However, the guerrillas were now entrenched in the Taebaek-san region of theNorth Gyeongsang Provinceand the border areas of theGangwon Province.[71]
While the insurgency was ongoing, the ROKA and KPA engaged in battalion-sized battles along the border, starting in May 1949.[68]Border clashes between South and North continued on 4 August 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th parallel. The 2nd and 18th ROK Infantry Regiments repulsed attacks in Kuksa-bong,[72]and KPA troops were "completely routed".[73]Border incidents decreased by the start of 1950.[71]
Meanwhile, counterinsurgencies in the South Korean interior intensified; persistent operations, paired with worsening weather, denied the guerrillas sanctuary and wore away their fighting strength. North Korea responded by sending more troops to link up with insurgents and build more partisan cadres; North Korean infiltrators had reached 3,000 soldiers in 12 units by the start of 1950, but all were destroyed or scattered by the ROKA.[74]
On 1 October 1949, the ROKA launched a three-pronged assault on the insurgents inSouth ChollaandTaegu.By March 1950, the ROKA claimed 5,621 guerrillas killed or captured and 1,066 small arms seized. This operation crippled the insurgency. Soon after, North Korea made final attempts to keep the uprising active, sending battalion-sized units of infiltrators under the commands of Kim Sang-ho and Kim Moo-hyon. The first battalion was reduced to a single man over the course of engagements by the ROKA8th Division.The second was annihilated by a two-battalionhammer-and-anvil maneuverby units of the ROKA6th Division,resulting in a toll of 584 KPA guerrillas (480 killed, 104 captured) and 69 ROKA troops killed, plus 184 wounded.[75]By the spring of 1950, guerrilla activity had mostly subsided; the border, too, was calm.[76]
Prelude to war (1950)
By 1949, South Korean and US military actions had reduced indigenous communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il Sung believed widespread uprisings had weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to persuade him.[77]
Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. PLA forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while US forces remained stationed in South Korea.[78]By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: PLA forces underMao Zedonghad secured final victory, US forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Sovietshad detonated their first nuclear bomb,breaking the US monopoly. As the US had not directly intervened to stop the communists in China, Stalin calculated they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had less strategic significance.[79]The Soviets had cracked the codes used by the US to communicate with theirembassy in Moscow,and reading dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation.[79]Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through theSino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance.[80]
In April 1950, Stalin permitted Kim to attack the government in the South, under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed.[81]For Kim, this was the fulfillment of his goal to unite Korea. Stalin made it clear Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the United States.[81]
Kim met with Mao in May 1950 and differing historical interpretations of the meeting have been put forward. According to Barbara Barnouin and Yu Changgeng, Mao agreed to support Kim despite concerns of American intervention, as China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets.[82]Kathryn Weathersby cites Soviet documents which said Kim secured Mao's support.[83]Along with Mark O'Neill, she says this accelerated Kim's war preparations.[84][85]Chen Jianargues Mao never seriously challenged Kim's plans and Kim had every reason to inform Stalin that he had obtained Mao's support.[86]: 112 Citing more recent scholarship,Zhao Suishengcontends Mao did not approve of Kim's war proposal and requested verification from Stalin, who did so via a telegram.[87]: 28–9 Mao accepted the decision made by Kim and Stalin to unify Korea but cautioned Kim over possible US intervention.[87]: 30
Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from World War II were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. They completed plans for attack by May[88]and called for a skirmish to be initiated in theOngjin Peninsulaon the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch an attack to capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the ROK. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants and capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.[89]
On 7 June 1950, Kim called for a Korea-wide election on 5–8 August 1950 and a consultative conference inHaejuon 15–17 June. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture, which Rhee rejected outright.[81]On 21 June, Kim revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in Ongjin. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents had learned about the plans and that South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change.[90]
While these preparations were underway in the North, there were clashes along the 38th parallel, especially atKaesongand Ongjin, many initiated by the South.[91][92]The ROK was being trained by the USKorean Military Advisory Group(KMAG). On the eve of the war, KMAG commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice".[93]For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when US diplomatJohn Foster Dullesvisited Korea on 18 June.[94]
Though some South Korean and US intelligence officers predicted an attack, similar predictions had been made before and nothing had happened.[95]TheCentral Intelligence Agencynoted the southward movement by the KPA but assessed this as a "defensive measure" and concluded an invasion was "unlikely".[96]On 23 June UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.[97]
Comparison of forces
Chinese involvement was extensive from the beginning, building on previous collaboration between the Chinese and Korean communists during the Chinese Civil War. Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the PLA were sent to North Korea.[98]
In the fall of 1949, two PLA divisions composed mainly ofKorean-Chinesetroops (the164thand166th) entered North Korea, followed by smaller units throughout the rest of 1949. The reinforcement of the KPA with PLA veterans continued into 1950, with the156th Divisionand several other units of the former Fourth Field Army arriving in February; the PLA 156th Division was reorganized as the KPA 7th Division. By mid-1950, between 50,000 and 70,000 former PLA troops had entered North Korea, forming a significant part of the KPA's strength on the eve of the war's beginning.[99]The combat veterans and equipment from China, the tanks, artillery, and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea's military superiority over the South, armed by the U.S. military with mostly small arms, but no heavy weaponry.[100]
Several generals, such asLee Kwon-mu,were PLA veterans born to ethnic Koreans in China. While older histories of the conflict often referred to these ethnic Korean PLA veterans as being sent from northern Korea to fight in the Chinese Civil War before being sent back, recent Chinese archival sources studied by Kim Donggill indicate that this was not the case. Rather, the soldiers were indigenous to China, as part of China's longstanding ethnic Korean community, and were recruited to the PLA in the same way as any other Chinese citizen.[101]
According to the first official census in 1949, the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000,[102]and by mid-1950, North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong,Chuncheon,Uijeongbu,and Ongjin. Their forces included 274T-34-85tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, 150Yakfighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T-34-85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea.[50]Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as seaborne artillery for their armies.
In contrast, the South Korean population was estimated at 20 million,[103]but its army was unprepared and ill-equipped. As of 25 June 1950, the ROK had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22-plane air force comprising 12liaison-typeand 10AT-6advanced-trainer airplanes. Large U.S. garrisons and air forces were in Japan,[104]but only 200–300 U.S. troops were in Korea.[105]
Course of the war
Operation Pokpung
At dawn on 25 June 1950, the KPA crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire.[106]It justified its assault with the claim ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee".[107]Fighting beganon the strategic Ongjin Peninsula in the west.[108][109]There were initial South Korean claims that the17th Regimenthad counterattacked at Haeju; some scholars argue the claimed counterattack was instead the instigating attack, and therefore that the South Koreans may have fired first.[108][110]However, the report that contained the Haeju claim contained errors and outright falsehoods.[111]
KPA forces attacked all along the 38th parallel within an hour. The KPA had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The ROK had no tanks, anti-tank weapons, or heavy artillery. The South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion, and these were routed in a few days.[112]
On 27 June, Rhee evacuated Seoul with some of the government. At 02:00 on 28 June the ROKblew up the Hangang Bridgeacross theHan Riverin an attempt to stop the KPA. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it, and hundreds were killed.[113][114]Destroying the bridge trapped many ROK units north of the river.[112]In spite of such desperate measures,Seoul fellthat same day. Some South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and 48 subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.[115]
On 28 June, Rhee ordered themassacre of suspected political opponentsin his own country.[116]In five days, the ROK, which had 95,000 troops on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 troops. In early July, when US forces arrived, what was left of the ROK was placed under US operational command of theUnited Nations Command.[117]
Factors in U.S. intervention
TheTruman administrationwas unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined byUnited States Secretary of StateDean Acheson.[118]Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than that ofEast Asia.[119]The administration was worried a war in Korea could quickly escalate without American intervention. Diplomat John Foster Dulles stated: "To sit by while Korea is overrun by unprovoked armed attack would start a disastrous chain of events leading most probably to world war."[120]
While there was hesitance by some in the US government to get involved, considerations about Japan fed into the decision to engage on behalf of South Korea. After the fall of China to the communists, US experts saw Japan as the region's counterweight to the Soviet Union and China. While there was no US policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased its importance. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman's decision to intervene... The essential point... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan."[121][122]
Another consideration was the Soviet reaction if the US intervened. The Truman administration was fearful a Korean war was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the US committed in Korea. At the same time, "[t]here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from [the conflict]".[123]Yugoslavia—a possible Soviet target because of theTito-Stalin split—was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of theNational Security Council's post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots".[124]Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would start that would marginalize the UN and encourage communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans, and the US immediately began using air and naval forces in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing troops on the ground, because advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.[125]
The Truman administration was uncertain whether the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union, or just a test of US resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against US forces in Korea.[126]The Truman administration believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.
United Nations Security Council resolutions
On 25 June 1950, theUnited Nations Security Councilunanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of South Korea withResolution 82.The Soviet Union, aveto-wielding power,had boycotted Council meetings since January 1950, protestingTaiwan's occupation ofChina's permanent seat.[127]The Security Council, on 27 June 1950, publishedResolution 83recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help. On 4 July the Soviet deputy foreign minister accused the U.S. of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.[128]
The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from US Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violatedUN CharterArticle 32; and the fighting was beyond the Charter's scope, because the initial north–south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council, some legal scholars posited that deciding upon this type of action required the unanimous vote of all five permanent members.[129][130]
Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK soldiers—of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime—were retreating southwards ordefectingen masse to the northern side, the KPA.[131]
United States' response (July–August 1950)
As soon as word of the attack was received,[132]Acheson informed Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea.[133][134]Truman and Acheson discussed a US invasion response and agreed the US was obligated to act, comparing the North Korean invasion withAdolf Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s, and the mistake ofappeasementmust not be repeated.[135]US industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War.[136]Truman later explained he believed fighting the invasion was essential to thecontainmentof communism as outlined in theNational Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68):
Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall, Communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger Communist neighbors.[137]
In August 1950, Truman and Acheson obtained the consent ofCongressto appropriate $12 billion for military action, equivalent to $152 billion in 2023.[134]Because of the extensive defense cuts and emphasis on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were able to make a robust response with conventional military strength. GeneralOmar Bradley,Chair of theJoint Chiefs of Staff,was faced with deploying a force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.[138][139]
Acting on Acheson's recommendation, Truman ordered MacArthur, theSupreme Commander for the Allied Powersin Japan, to transfer matériel to the South Korean military, while giving air cover to evacuation of US nationals. Truman disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral bombing of the North Korean forces and ordered theU.S. Seventh Fleetto protect Taiwan, whose government asked to fight in Korea. The US denied Taiwan's request for combat, lest it provoke retaliation from the PRC.[140]Because the US had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize" theTaiwan Strait,Chinese PremierZhou Enlaicriticized the UN and US initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory".[141]The US supported theKuomintang in Burmain the hope these KMT forces would harass China from thesouthwest,thereby diverting Chinese resources from Korea.[142]: 65
The drive south and Pusan (July–September 1950)
TheBattle of Osan,the first significant US engagement, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, a small forward element of the24th Infantry Divisionflown in from Japan.[143]On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the KPA atOsanbut without weapons capable of destroying KPA tanks. The KPA defeated the US, with 180 American casualties. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back US forces atPyongtaek,Chonan,andChochiwon,forcing the 24th Division's retreat toTaejeon,which the KPA captured in theBattle of Taejon.The 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including its commander, Major GeneralWilliam F. Dean.[144]
By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK and theEighth United States Armysouthwards.[145]The impact of the Truman administration's defense budget cutbacks was keenly felt, as US troops fought costly rearguard actions. Facing a veteran and well-led KPA force, and lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, the Americans retreated and the KPA advanced down the Peninsula.[146][147]By September, UN forces were hemmed into a corner of southeast Korea, nearPusan.This 230-kilometre (140-mile) perimeter enclosed about 10% of Korea, in a line defined by theNakdong River.
The KPA purged South Korea's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, MacArthur warned Kim Il Sung he would be held responsible for KPA atrocities.[148]
Kim's early successes led him to predict the war would finish by the end of August. Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible US deployment, Zhou secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and he deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command ofGao Gang.Zhou authorized a topographical survey of Korea and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou's military adviser in Korea, to analyze the military situation. Lei concluded MacArthur would likely attempt a landing at Incheon.[149][150]After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei's findings, and issued orders to PLA commanders to prepare for US naval activity in theKorea Strait.[151]
In the resultingBattle of Pusan Perimeter,UN forces withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city atthe Naktong Bulge,P'ohang-dong,andTaegu.TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground supportsorties,which destroyed 32 bridges, halting daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night.[152]To deny military equipment and supplies to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, refineries, and harbors, whileU.S. Navyaircraft attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the overextended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south.[153]On 27 August,67th Fighter Squadronaircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory, and the Soviet Union called the Security Council's attention to China's complaint about the incident.[154]The US proposed a commission of India and Sweden determine what the US should pay in compensation, but the Soviets vetoed this.[155][156]
Meanwhile, US garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and military supplies to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter.[157]MacArthur went so far as to call for Japan's rearmament.[158]Tank battalions deployed to Korea, from theport of San Franciscoto theport of Pusan,the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had 500 medium tanks battle-ready.[159]In early September 1950, UN forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.[38][160]
Battle of Incheon (September 1950)
Against the rested and rearmed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN, they lacked naval and air support.[161]To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, MacArthur recommended anamphibious landingat Incheon, near Seoul, well over 160 km (100 mi) behind the KPA lines.[162]On 6 July, he ordered Major GeneralHobart R. Gay,commander of the U.S.1st Cavalry Division,to plan an amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12–14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked fromYokohama,Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.[163]
Soon after the war began, MacArthur began planning an Incheon landing, butthe Pentagonopposed him.[162]When authorized, he activated a combinedUS ArmyandMarine Corps,and ROK force. TheX Corps,consisted of 40,000 troops of the1st Marine Division,the7th Infantry Divisionand around 8,600 ROK soldiers.[164]By 15 September, the amphibious force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence,psychological warfare,guerrillareconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of Incheon.[165]
Breakout from the Pusan Perimeter
On 16 September Eighth Army began its breakout from the Pusan Perimeter. Task Force Lynch,[166][167]3rd Battalion,7th Cavalry Regiment,and 70th Tank Battalion units advanced through 171.2 km (106.4 mi) of KPA territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan on 27 September.[163]X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force.[168]
On 18 September, Stalin dispatched GeneralH. M. Zakharovto advise Kim to halt his offensive around the Pusan Perimeter, and redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. Zhou suggested the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the UN forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.[169]
On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by UN forces. US air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and artillery. KPA troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leavingPyongyangvulnerable.[169]During the retreat, only 25,000-30,000 KPA soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines.[170][171]On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of thePolitburo,where he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.[169]
UN forces invade North Korea (September–October 1950)
On 27 September, MacArthur received secret National Security Council Memorandum 81/1 from Truman reminding him operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily".[172]On 29 September, MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee.[169]The Joint Chiefs of Staff on 27 September sent MacArthur a comprehensive directive: it stated the primary goal was the destruction of the KPA, with unification of the Peninsula under Rhee as a secondary objective "if possible"; the Joint Chiefs added this objective was dependent on whether the Chinese and Soviets would intervene, and was subject to changing conditions.[173]
On 30 September, Zhou warned the US that China was prepared to intervene if the US crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise KPA commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics that allowed Chinese Communist forces to escape Nationalistencirclement campaignsin the 1930s, but KPA commanders did not use these tactics effectively.[174]Bruce Cumingsargues, however, that the KPA's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.[175]
By 1 October, the UN Command had driven the KPA past the 38th parallel, and RoK forces pursued the KPA northwards.[176]MacArthur demanded the KPA's unconditional surrender.[177]On 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards.[178]The Eighth US Army drove up western Korea andcaptured Pyongyangon 19 October.[179]On 20 October, theUS 187th Airborne Regimentmade their first of their two combat jumps during the warat Sunchon and Sukchon.The mission was to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping Pyongyang, and to rescue USprisoners of war.
At month's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino-Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by 80–161 km (50–100 mi) of mountainous terrain.[180]In addition to the 135,000 captured, the KPA had suffered some 200,000 soldiers killed or wounded, for a total of 335,000 casualties since end of June 1950, and lost 313 tanks. A mere 25,000 KPA regulars retreated across the 38th parallel, as their military had collapsed. The UN forces on the peninsula numbered 229,722 combat troops (including 125,126 Americans and 82,786 South Koreans), 119,559 rear area troops, and 36,667 US Air Force personnel.[181]MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the war into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean effort. Truman disagreed and ordered caution at the Sino-Korean border.[182]
China intervenes (October–December 1950)
On 3 October 1950, China attempted to warn the US, through its embassy in India, it would intervene if UN forces crossed the Yalu River.[183]: 42 [86]: 169 The US did not respond as policymakers in Washington, including Truman, considered it a bluff.[183]: 42 [86]: 169 [184]: 57
On 15 October Truman and MacArthurmet at Wake Island.This was much publicized because of MacArthur's discourteous refusal to meet the president in the contiguous US.[185]To Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea,[186]and the PRC's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria and 100,000–125,000 at the Yalu River. He concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter" without Soviet air force protection.[170][187]
Meanwhile on 13 October, thePolitburodecided China would intervene even without Soviet air support, basing its decision on a belief superior morale could defeat an enemy that had superior equipment.[188]To that end, 200,000 ChinesePeople's Volunteer Army(PVA) troops crossed the Yalu into North Korea.[189]UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march andbivouacdiscipline minimized detection.[190]The PVA marched "dark-to-dark" (19:00–03:00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05:30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers remained motionless if an aircraft appeared;[190]PVA officers were under orders to shoot security violators.[citation needed]Such battlefield discipline allowed a three-divisionarmy to march the 460 km (286 mi) fromAn-tung,Manchuria, to the combat zone in 19 days. Another division night-marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging 29 km (18 mi) daily for 18 days.[50]
After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched theFirst Phase Offensiveon 25 October, attacking advancing UN forces near the Sino-Korean border. This decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after PVA troops entered the war, Stalin allowed theSoviet Air Forcesto provide air cover and supported more aid to China.[191]After inflicting heavy losses on the ROKII Corpsat theBattle of Onjong,the first confrontation between Chinese and US military occurred on 1 November 1950. Deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA39th Armyencircledand attacked the US8th Cavalry Regimentwith three-prong assaults—from the north, northwest, and west—and overran the defensive position flanks in theBattle of Unsan.[192]
On 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, withPeng Dehuaias field commander.[189]On 25 November, on the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at theBattle of the Ch'ongch'on River,and then inflicted heavy losses on the US2nd Infantry Divisionon the UN forces' right flank.[193]Believing they could not hold against the PVA, the Eighth Army began toretreat, crossing the 38th parallelin mid-December.[194]
In the east, on 27 November, the PVA 9th Army Group initiated theBattle of Chosin Reservoir.Here, the UN forces fared better: like the Eighth Army, the surprise attack forced X Corps to retreat from northeast Korea, but they were able to break out from the attempted encirclement by the PVA and execute asuccessful tactical withdrawal.X Corps established a defensive perimeter at the port city ofHungnamon 11 December andevacuated by 24 December,to reinforce the depleted Eighth Army to the south.[195][196]About 193 shiploads of UN forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan.[197]TheSSMeredith Victorywas noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN forcesrazedmost of Hungnam, with particular attention to the port.[170][198]
In early December UN forces, including theBritish Army's29th Infantry Brigade,evacuated Pyongyang along with refugees.[199]Around 4.5 million North Koreans are estimated to have fled South or elsewhere abroad.[200]On 16 December Truman declared anational state of emergencywith Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953),[201]which remained in force until September 1978.[e]The next day, 17 December, Kim Il Sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China.[202]
Fighting around the 38th parallel (January–June 1951)
A ceasefire presented by the UN to the PRC, after the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River on 11 December, was rejected by the PRC, which was convinced of the PVA's invincibility after its victory in that battle and the widerSecond Phase Offensive.[203][204]With Lieutenant GeneralMatthew Ridgwayassuming command of the Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched theirThird Phase Offensiveon New Year's Eve. Using night attacks in which UN fighting positions were encircled and assaulted by numerically superior troops, who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which facilitated tactical communication and disoriented the enemy. UN forces had no familiarity with this tactic, and some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south.[205]The offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to capture Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.
These setbacks prompted MacArthur to consider usingnuclear weaponsagainst the Chinese or North Korean interiors, intending radioactive fallout zones to interrupt the Chinese supply chains.[206]However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, theesprit de corpsof the bloodied Eighth Army revived.[207]
UN forces retreated toSuwonin the west,Wonjuin the center, and the territory north ofSamcheokin the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held.[205]The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines.[208]On 25 late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force, which becameOperation Thunderbolt.[209]A full-scale advance fully exploited the UN's air superiority,[210]concluding with the UN forces reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.[209]
Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, theUnited Nations General AssemblypassedResolution 498on 1 February, condemning the PRC as an aggressor and calling upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.[211][212]
In early February, the ROK11th Divisionran an operation to destroy guerrillas and pro-DPRK sympathizers in theSouth Gyeongsang Province.[213]The division and police committed theGeochangandSancheong–Hamyang massacres.[213]In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved victoryat Hoengseong.However, the offensive was blunted by USIX CorpsatChipyong-niin the center.[209]The US23rd Regimental Combat TeamandFrench Battalionfought ashort but desperate battlethat broke the attack's momentum.[209]The battle is sometimes known as the "Gettysburgof the Korean War ": 5,600 U.S., and French troops were surrounded by 25,000 PVA. UN forces had previously retreated in the face of large PVA/KPA forces instead of getting cut off, but this time, they stood and won.[214]
In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Thunderbolt was followed byOperation Killer,carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full-scale, battlefront-length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible.[209]Operation Killer concluded with USI Corpsre-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong.[215]On 7 March the Eighth Army attacked withOperation Ripper,expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March. This was the fourth and final conquest of the city in a year, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000 and people were suffering from food shortages.[215][171]
On 6 March MacArthur gave a press conference at Suwon where he stated "Assuming no diminution of the enemy’s flow of ground forces and materiel to the Korean battle area, a continuation of the existing limitation upon our freedom of counter-offensive action, and no major additions to our organizational strength, the battle lines cannot fail in time to reach a point of theoretical stalemate." No one in Washington disputed MacArthur’s prediction that a stalemate could develop out of the conditions obtaining. But a military victory, because of the commitments and risks an attempt to achieve it would entail, was no longer considered a practical objective. The preferred course, preferred because it would be consistent with the greater strategy and ongoing preparations against the possibility of world war, was to seek a cease-fire and a negotiated settlement of Korean issues.[216]On 12 March Ridgway gave his own press conference at his command post atYojustating that regaining the 38th parallel would be a "tremendous victory" for the Eighth Army. It would mean that the encroachment of communism in Korea had been stopped - exactly what the UNC had set out to accomplish. Conversely, if the Chinese failed to drive the UNC out of Korea, they would have "failed monumentally." In any case, he emphasized, "we didn't set out to conquer China."[217]
In late April, Peng sent his deputy,Hong Xuezhi,to brief Zhou in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these were never sufficient. Large-scale air defense training programs were carried out and thePeople's Liberation Army Air Force(PLAAF) began participating in the war from September 1951 onward.[218]The Fourth Phase Offensive had failed to match the achievements of the Second Phase or the limited gains of the Third Phase. The UN forces, after earlier defeats and retraining, proved much harder to infiltrate by Chinese light infantry than in previous months. From 31 January to 21 April, the Chinese suffered 53,000 casualties.[219]
On 11 April Trumanrelieved General MacArthuras supreme commander in Korea for several reasons.[220]MacArthur had crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed the use of nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the president's.[221]MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a larger war, feeling a truce and orderly withdrawal could be a valid solution.[222]MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined he had defied the orders of the president and thus violated theUS Constitution.[223]A popular criticism of MacArthur was he never spent a night in Korea and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.[224]
Ridgway was appointed supreme commander, and he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks[225]while GeneralJames Van Fleetassumed command of the Eighth Army.[226]Further attacks depleted the PVA and KPA forces; OperationsCourageous(23–28 March) andTomahawk(23 March) (a combat jump by the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team) were joint ground and airborne infiltrations meant to trap PVA forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to theKansas Line,north of the 38th parallel.[227]
The PVA counterattacked in April 1951, with theFifth Phase Offensive,with three field armies (700,000 men).[228]The first thrust of the offensive fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in theBattle of the Imjin River(22–25 April) andBattle of Kapyong(22–25 April), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at theNo-name Linenorth of Seoul.[229]Casualty ratios were grievously disproportionate; Peng had expected a 1:1 or 2:1 ratio, but instead, Chinese combat casualties from 22 to 29 April totaled between 40,000 and 60,000 compared to only 4,000 for the UN—a ratio between 10:1 and 15:1.[230]By the time Peng had called off the attack in the western sector on 29 April, the three participating armies had lost a third of their front-line combat strength within a week.[231]On 15 May the PVA commenced the second impulse of the spring offensive andattacked the ROK and U.S. X Corpsin the east at theSoyang River.Approximately 370,000 PVA and 114,000 KPA troops had been mobilized, with the bulk attacking in the eastern sector, with about a quarter attempting to pin the I Corps and IX Corps in the western sector. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May and repulsed over the following days, with Western histories generally designating 22 May as the end of the offensive.[232][233]
At month's end, the Chinese planned the third step of the Fifth Phase Offensive (withdrawal), which they estimated would take 10-15 days to complete for their 340,000 remaining men, and set the date for the night of 23 May. They were caught off guard when the Eighth Army counterattacked and regained theKansas Lineon the morning of 12 May, 23 hours before the expected withdrawal.[234][235]The surprise attack turned the retreat into "the most severe loss since our forces had entered Korea"; between 16-23 May, the PVA suffered another 45,000 to 60,000 casualties before their soldiers managed to evacuate.[235]The Fifth Phase Offensive as a whole had cost the PVA 102,000 soldiers (85,000 killed/wounded, 17,000 captured), with significant losses for the KPA.[236]
The end of the Fifth Phase Offensive preceded the start of theUN May–June 1951 counteroffensive.During the counteroffensive, the US-led coalition captured land up to about 10 km (6 mi) north of the 38th parallel, with most forces stopping at theKansas Lineand a minority going further to theWyoming Line.PVA and KPA forces suffered greatly, especially in the Chuncheon sector and at Chiam-ni and Hwacheon; in the latter sector alone the PVA/KPA suffered over 73,207 casualties, including 8,749 captured, compared to 2,647 total casualties of the IX Corps.[237]
The halt at theKansas Lineand offensive action stand-down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953. The disastrous failure of the Fifth Phase Offensive (which Peng recalled as one of only four mistakes he made in his military career) "led Chinese leaders to change their goal from driving the UNF out of Korea to merely defending China's security and ending the war through negotiations".[238]
Stalemate (July 1951–July 1953)
For the rest of the war, the UN and the PVA/KPA fought but exchanged little territory. Large-scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protractedarmistice negotiationsbegan on 10 July 1951 at Kaesong in the North.[239]On the Chinese side, Zhou directed peace talks, andLi Kenongand Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team.[218]Combat continued; the goal of the UN forces was to recapture all of South Korea and avoid losing territory.[240]The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations and later effected military and psychological operations to test the UN Command's resolve to continue the war.
The sides constantly traded artillery fire along the front, with American-led forces possessing a large firepower advantage over Chinese-led forces. In the last three months of 1952 the UN fired 3,553,518 field gun shells and 2,569,941 mortar shells, while the communists fired 377,782 field gun shells and 672,194 mortar shells: a 5.8:1 ratio.[241]The communist insurgency, reinvigorated by North Korean support and scattered bands of KPA stragglers, resurged in the south.
In the autumn of 1951, Van Fleet ordered Major GeneralPaik Sun-yupto break the back of guerrilla activity. The UN's limited offensive (31 August – 12 November) to shorten and straighten sections of the lines, acquire better defensive terrain, and deny the enemy key vantage points, saw heavy fighting by UN forces, with I Corps and X Corps making limited tactical advances against PVA and KPA forces. The campaign resulted in approximately 60,000 casualties, including 22,000 Americans. The intense battles atBloody Ridge,the PunchbowlandHeartbreak Ridgeunderscored the challenges of penetrating the Chinese "active defense." Despite PVA/KPA losses of 100,000–150,000 troops, these were not crippling, and the PVA forces remained resolute. By November, the UNC abandoned major offensive operations, and the PVA launched counterattacks with some success.[242]
From December 1951 to March 1952, ROK security forces claimed to have killed 11,090 partisans and sympathizers and captured 9,916 more.[69]
PVA troops suffered from deficient military equipment, logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. These factors led to a rate of Chinese casualties far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that in November 1951 Zhou called a conference inShenyangto discuss the PVA's logistical problems. It was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields, to increase the trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to address the problems.[243]
In the months after the Shenyang conference, Peng went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties and the increasing difficulty of keeping front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced the war would be protracted and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, theMilitary Commission,presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA's logistical problems with members of government agencies. After government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the war demands, Peng shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Can't you overcome some of your difficulties?" The atmosphere became so tense Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou called a series of meetings, where it was agreed the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate training of pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.[244]
With peace negotiations ongoing, the Chinese attempted a final offensive in the final weeks of the war to capture territory: on 10 June, 30,000 Chinese troops struck South Korean and U.S. divisions on a 13 km (8 mi) front, and on 13 July, 80,000 Chinese soldiers struck the east-central Kumsong sector, with the brunt of their attack falling on 4 South Korean divisions. The Chinese had success in penetrating South Korean lines but failed to capitalize, particularly when US forces responded with overwhelming firepower. Chinese casualties in their final major offensive (above normal wastage for the front) were about 72,000, including 25,000 killed compared to 14,000 for the UN (most were South Koreans, 1,611 were Americans).[245]
While Chinese forces grappled with significant logistical and supply difficulties, the stalemate also stemmed from mounting frustrations within the UNC. Despite superior firepower, the war proved difficult to fight and the US public was becoming impatient of a war that was lacking a victory. By mid-1951, the stalemate had worn away Truman'spublic approval,and political pressures mounted on the Truman administration to seek an end to the fighting. On 29 November 1952 U.S. President-electDwight D. Eisenhowerwent to Korea to learn what might end the war.[246]Eisenhower took office on 20 January 1953 and his administration prioritized containment over rollback and sought to reduce American involvement in the conflict, contributing to the later armistice.[247][248][249]
Armistice (July 1953–November 1954)
The on-again, off-again armistice negotiations continued for two years,[250]first at Kaesong, thenPanmunjom.[251]A problematic point wasprisoner of warrepatriation.[252]The PVA, KPA and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north,[253]which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans.[254]ANeutral Nations Repatriation Commissionwas set up to handle the matter.[255]
Stalin died on 5 March. The new Soviet leaders, engaged in their internal power struggle, had no desire to continue supporting China's efforts and called for an end to the hostilities.[256]China could not continue without Soviet aid, and North Korea was no longer a major player. Armistice talks entered a new phase. With UN acceptance of India's proposed Korean War armistice,[257]the KPA, PVA and UN Command signed the armistice agreement on 27 July 1953. South Korean President Syngman Rhee refused to sign. The war ended at this point, even though there was nopeace treaty.[258]North Korea nevertheless claims it won the war.[259][260]
Under the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) which mostly follows the 38th parallel. In the eastern part, the DMZ runs north of the 38th parallel; to the west, it travels south of it. Kaesong, site of the initial negotiations, was in pre-war South Korea but is now part of North Korea. The DMZ has since been patrolled by the KPA and the ROKA, with the US still operating as the UN Command.
Operation Glorywas conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatants to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 US Army and US Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN POW camps were delivered to the South Korean government.[261]After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in theNational Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific,onOahu,Hawaii.Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office(DPMO) records indicate the PRC and North Korea transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the US, and all but 416 were identified by name.[262]From 1996 to 2006, North Korea recovered 220 remains near the Sino-Korean border.[263]
Continued division (1954–present)
The Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, theNeutral Nations Supervisory Commission,composed of members from the Swiss[264]and Swedish[265]armed forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.
In April 1975,South Vietnam's capital ofSaigon was capturedby thePeople's Army of Vietnam.Encouraged by that communist success, Kim Il Sung saw it as an opportunity to invade South Korea. Kim visited China in April 1975 and met with Mao and Zhou to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang's expectations, Beijing refused to help North Korea in another war.[266]
Since the armistice, there have been incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. From 1966 to 1969, many cross-border incursions took place in what has been referred to as theKorean DMZ Conflictor Second Korean War. In 1968, a North Korean commando team unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate South Korean presidentPark Chung Heein theBlue House Raid.In 1976, theKorean axe murder incidentwas widely publicized. Since 1974, 4 incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarinetorpedoed and sankthe South KoreancorvetteROKSCheonan,resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors.[267]Again in 2010, North Koreafired artillery shells on Yeonpyeongisland, killing 2 military personnel and 2 civilians.[268]
After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid.[269]On 13 March, North Korea confirmed it ended the Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression".[270]On 30 March, North Korea stated it entered a "state of war" and "the long-standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over".[271]Speaking on 4 April, US Secretary of DefenseChuck Hagelsaid that Pyongyang "formally informed" the Pentagon that it "ratified" the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the US, including Guam and Hawaii.[272]Hagel stated the US would deploy theTerminal High Altitude Area Defenseanti-ballistic missilesystem to Guam because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat.[273]
In 2016, it was revealed North Korea approached the US about conducting formal peace talks to end the war officially. While theWhite Houseagreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected because North Korea refused to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the treaty.[274]In 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talk to end the conflict. They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Peninsula.[275]North Korean leaderKim Jong Unand South Korean PresidentMoon Jae-insigned thePanmunjom Declaration.[276]In September 2021, Moon reiterated his call to end the war formally, in a speech at the UN.[277]
Casualties
About 3 million people were killed in the war, mostly civilians, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War era.[21][22][278][279][280]Samuel Kim lists the war as the deadliest conflict in East Asia—the region most affected by armed conflict related to the Cold War.[278]Though only rough estimates of civilian fatalities are available, scholars have noted that the percentage of civilian casualties in Korea was higher than World War II or the Vietnam War, with Bruce Cumings putting civilian casualties at 2 million andGuenter Lewyin the range of 2-3 million.[21][22]
Cumings states that civilians represent at least half the war's casualties, while Lewy suggests it may have gone as high as 70%, compared to his estimates of 42% in World War II and 30%–46% in Vietnam.[21][22]Data compiled by thePeace Research Institute Oslolists just under 1 million battle deaths over the war and a mid-estimate of 3 million total deaths, attributing the difference to excess mortality among civilians from one-sided massacres, starvation, and disease.[281]Compounding this devastation for civilians, virtually all major cities on the Peninsula were destroyed.[22]In per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the most devastated by the war. According toCharles K. Armstrong,the war resulted in the death of an estimated 12%–15% of the North Korean population (c.10 million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion ofSoviet citizens killed in World War II".[103]
Military
South Korea reported some 137,899 military deaths and 24,495 missing, 450,742 wounded, 8,343 POW.[8]The US suffered 33,686 battle deaths, 7,586 missing,[282]along with 2,830 non-battle deaths. There were 17,730 other non-battle US military deaths that occurred outside Korea during the same period that were erroneously included as war deaths until 2000.[283][284]The US suffered 103,284 wounded in action.[285]UN losses, excluding those of the US or South Korea, amounted to 4,141 dead and 12,044 wounded in action.
American combat casualties were over 90% of non-Korean UN losses. US battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950.[286]The first four months prior to the Chinese intervention were by far the bloodiest per day for US forces, as they engaged the well-equipped KPA in intense fighting. American medical records show that from July to October 1950, the army sustained 31% of the combat deaths it ultimately incurred in the entire 37-month war.[287]The US spent US$30 billion on the war.[288]Some 1,789,000 American soldiers served in the war, accounting for 31% of the 5,720,000 Americans who served on active duty worldwide from June 1950 to July 1953.[12]
Deaths from non-American UN militaries totaled 3,730, with another 379 missing.[8]
United Kingdom:
1,109 dead[289]
2,674 wounded[289]
179 MIA[8]
977 POW[8]
Turkey:[8]
741 dead
2,068 wounded
163 MIA
244 POW
Canada:
516 dead[290]
1,042 wounded[291]
1 MIA[8]
33 POW[292]
Australia:[293]
339 dead
1,216 wounded
43 MIA
26 POW
France:[8]
262 dead
1,008 wounded
7 MIA
12 POW
Greece[8]
192 dead
543 wounded
3 POW
Colombia:[8]
163 dead
448 wounded
28 POW
Thailand:[8]
129 dead
1,139 wounded
5 MIA[clarification needed]
Ethiopia[8]
121 dead
536 wounded
Netherlands:[8]
122 dead
645 wounded
3 MIA
Belgium:[8]
101 dead
478 wounded
5 MIA
1 POW
Philippines:[294]
92 dead
299 wounded
97 MIA/POW
Japan:[11]
79 dead
South Africa:[8]
34 dead
9 POW
New Zealand:[294]
34 dead
299 wounded
1 MIA/POW
Norway:[8]
3 dead
Luxembourg:[8]
2 dead
13 wounded
India:[295]
1 dead
Chinese sources reported that the PVA suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 21,000 deaths from wounds, 13,000 deaths from illness, 340,000 wounded, and 7,600 missing. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China.[20]In 2010, the Chinese government revised their official tally of war losses to 183,108 dead (114,084 in combat, 70,000 deaths from wounds, illness and other causes) and 21,374 POW,[296]25,621 missing.[297]Overall, 73% of Chinese infantry troops served in Korea (25 of 34 armies, or 79 of 109 infantry divisions, were rotated in). More than 52% of the Chinese air force, 55% of the tank units, 67% of the artillery divisions, and 100% of the railroad engineering divisions were sent to Korea as well.[298]Chinese soldiers who served in Korea faced a greater chance of being killed than those who served in World War II or the Chinese Civil War.[299]China spent over 10 billion yuan on the war (roughly US$3.3 billion), not counting USSR aid.[300]This included $1.3 billion in money owed to the Soviet Union by the end of it. This was a relatively large cost, as China had only 4% of the national income of the US.[20]Spending on the war constituted 34–43% of China's annual government budget from 1950 to 1953, depending on the year.[300]Despite its underdeveloped economy, Chinese military spending was the world's fourth largest globally for most of the war after that of the US, the Soviet Union, and the UK; however, by 1953, with the winding down of the Korean War and the escalation of theFirst Indochina War,French spending also surpassed Chinese spending by about a third.[301]
According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, North Korean military losses totaled 294,151 dead, 91,206 missing, and 229,849 wounded, giving North Korea the highest military deaths of any belligerent in absolute and relative terms.[302]The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset gave a similar figure for North Korean military deaths of 316,579.[303]Chinese sources reported similar figures for the North Korean military of 290,000 "casualties" and 90,000 captured.[20]The financial cost of the war for North Korea was massive in direct losses and lost economic activity; the country was devastated by the cost of the war andthe American strategic bombing campaign,which, among other things, destroyed 85% of North Korea's buildings and 95% of its power generation.[304]The Soviet Union suffered 299 dead, with 335 planes lost.[305]
The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the US, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated" from the battlefield.[20]Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed, 303,000 wounded, and over 101,000 captured or missing.[306]Cumings cites a much higher figure of 900,000 fatalities among Chinese soldiers.[21]
Civilian
According to the South Korean Ministry of National Defense, there were over 750,000 confirmed violent civilians deaths during the war, another million civilians were pronounced missing, and millions more ended up as refugees. Estimates of the number of civilians killed in the entire war range from 244,000 to 990,000 for South Korea. The North Korean government has never published estimates of civilian deaths in the war, but more than one million killed has been an estimate common among historians who have studied the Korean War.[307]Over 1.5 million North Koreans fled to the South.[302]
War crimes
There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean War committed by both sides, starting in the war's first days. In 2005–2010, aSouth Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commissioninvestigated atrocities and other human rights violations through much of the 20th century, from theJapanese colonial periodthrough the Korean War and beyond. It excavated some mass graves from the Bodo League massacres and confirmed the general outlines of those political executions. Of the Korean War-era massacres the commission was petitioned to investigate, 82% were perpetrated by South Korean forces, with 18% perpetrated by North Korean forces.[308][309][310]
The commission also received petitions alleging more than 200 large-scale killings of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military during the war, mostly air attacks. It confirmed several such cases, including refugees crowded into a cave attacked with napalm bombs, which survivors said killed 360 people, and an air attack that killed 197 refugees gathered in a field in the far south. It recommended South Korea seek reparations from the United States, but in 2010, a reorganized commission under a new, conservative government concluded that most U.S. mass killings resulted from "military necessity", while in a small number of cases, they concluded, the U.S. military had acted with "low levels of unlawfulness", but the commission recommended against seeking reparations.[310]
Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed during the war.[311][312]The war's highest-ranking U.S. POW, Major General William F. Dean,[313]reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland.[314][315]North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent".[316]North Korea ranks as among the most heavily bombed countries in history,[317]and the U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs (including 32,557 tons of napalm) on Korea, more than during the entire Pacific War.[318][316]By the end of the war, eighteen of the twenty-two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated according to damage assessments by the U.S. Air Force.[319]During a Senate hearing in the spring of 1951, MacArthur expressed his horror at the devastation that the war was inflicting on the Koreans, describing it as the worst he had ever seen in his military career. As the most humane solution, MacArthur suggested that the war should be escalated in order to bring it to an end sooner.[320]
Characteristics
U.S. unpreparedness
In postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of US forces deployed during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major GeneralFloyd L. Parksstated "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man... [T]hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament."[321]
By 1950, US Secretary of DefenseLouis A. Johnsonhad established a policy of faithfully following Truman's defense economization plans and aggressively attempted to implement it, even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks and widespread reports of ill-equipped and inadequately trained military forces in the war's early stages.[322]
As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper" since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request.[322][323]Army officials, desperate for weaponry,recoveredSherman tanksand other equipment from Pacific War battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea.[322]Army ordnance officials atFort Knoxpulled downM26 Pershingtanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army's hastily formed70th Tank Battalion.[324]Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter-bomber aircraft, the Air Force tookF-51 (P-51)propeller-driven aircraft out of storage or from existingAir National Guardsquadrons and rushed them into front-line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.[325]
U.S.Army ReserveandArmy National Guardinfantry soldiers and new inductees (called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions) found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground-support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as theM20 3.5-inch (89 mm) "Super Bazooka".[326]Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn-out, "red-lined"M1 riflesorcarbinesin immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair.[327][328]Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully understrength,[329]as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).[330]
Armored warfare
The initial assault by KPA forces was aided by the use of SovietT-34-85tanks.[331]A KPAtank corpsequipped with about 120 T-34s spearheaded the invasion. These faced an ROK that had few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the T-34s.[332]Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed.[333]The KPA tanks had a good deal of early successes against ROK infantry, Task Force Smith, and the U.S.M24 Chaffeelight tanks that they encountered.[334][335]Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing KPA armor. The tide turned in favor of the UN forces in August 1950 when the KPA suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including AmericanM4A3 Shermanand M26 medium tanks, alongside BritishCenturion,ChurchillandCromwelltanks.[336]
The Incheon landings on 15 September cut off the KPA supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result of this and the Pusan perimeter breakout, the KPA had to retreat, and many of the T-34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the KPA withdrew from the South, 239 T-34s and 74SU-76self-propelled guns were lost.[337]After November 1950, KPA armor was rarely encountered.[338]
Following the initial assault by the North, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large-scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the eastern central zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.[339]
Naval warfare
Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the war featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiserUSSJuneau,the Royal Navy cruiserHMSJamaicaand the Royal Navy frigateHMSBlack Swanfought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them. USSJuneaulater sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred days before the Battle of Incheon; the ROK shipPC-703sank a North Korean minelayer in theBattle of HaejuIsland, near Incheon. Three other supply ships were sunk byPC-703two days later in the Yellow Sea.[340]
During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to UN navy ships was frommagnetic mines.During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships.[341]
Aerial warfare
The war was the first in whichjet aircraftplayed the central role in air combat. Once-formidable fighters such as the P-51 Mustang,F4U Corsair,andHawker Sea Fury[342]—allpiston-engined,propeller-driven, and designed during World War II—relinquished their air-superiority roles to a new generation of faster,jet-poweredfighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, theP-80 Shooting Star,F9F Panther,Gloster Meteor,and other jets under the UN flag dominated theKorean People's Air Force(KPAF) propeller-driven SovietYakovlev Yak-9andLavochkin La-9s.[343][344]By early August 1950, the KPAF was reduced to only about 20 planes.[345]
The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the KPAF with theMiG-15,one of the world's most advanced jet fighters.[343]The USAF countered the MiG-15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, theF-86 Sabre.These arrived in December 1950.[346][347]The Soviet Union denied the involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the radio in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was acasus bellithat the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war expand to include the Soviet Union and potentially escalate into atomic warfare.[343]
After the war and to the present day, the USAF reported an inflated F-86 Sabrekill ratioin excess of 10:1, with 792 MiG-15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire.[348][349]The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China's PLAAF reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG-15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F-86s, respectively.[350][351]
More modern American estimates place the overall USAF kill ratio at around 1.8:1 with the ratio dropping to 1.3:1 against MiG-15s with Soviet pilots but increasing to a dominant 12:1 against Chinese and North Korean adversaries.[352][353][354]
Reports by Lieutenant GeneralSidor Slyusarev,commander of Soviet air forces in Korea, are more favorable to the communist side. The 64th Corps claimed a total 1,097 enemy aircraft of all types during operations, for the loss of 335 aircraft (including lost to enemy ground fire, accidents, etc) and 110 pilots. Soviet reports put the overall kill ratio at 3.4:1 in favor of Soviet pilots.[355]As reported, effectiveness of the Soviet fighters declined as the war progressed. from an overall kill ratio of 7.9:1 from November 1950 through January 1952, declining to 2.2:1 in later 1952 and 1.9:1 in 1953. This was because more advanced jet fighters appeared on the UN side as well as improved U.S. tactics.[355]
Regardless of the actual ratio, American Sabres were very effective at controlling the skies over Korea. Since no other UN fighter could contend with the MiG-15, F-86s largely took over air combat once they arrived, relegating other aircraft to air-to-ground operations. Despite much greater numbers (the number of Sabres in theater never exceeded 150 while MiG-15s reached 900 at their peak), communist aircraft were seldom encountered south of Pyongyang. UN ground forces, supply lines, and infrastructure were not attacked from the air. Although North Korea had 75 airfields capable of supporting MiGs, after 1951, any serious effort to operate from them was abandoned. The MiGs were instead based across the Yalu River in the safety of China. This confined most air-to-air engagements toMiG Alley.UN aircraft had free rein to conduct strike missions over enemy territory with little fear of interception. Although jet dogfights are remembered as a prominent part of the Korean War, counter-air missions comprised just 12% ofFar East Air Forcessorties, and four times as many sorties were performed for close air support and interdiction.[345]
The war marked a major milestone not only for fixed-wing aircraft, but also forrotorcraft,featuring the first large-scale deployment ofhelicoptersformedical evacuation(medevac).[356]In 1944–45, during World War II, theYR-4 helicopterhad seen limited ambulance duty. In Korea, where rough terrain prevented use of thejeepas a speedy medevac vehicle,[357]helicopters like theSikorsky H-19were heavily used. This helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such asMobile Army Surgical Hospitals(MASH).[358]As such, the medical evacuation and care system for the wounded was so effective for the UN forces that a wounded soldier who arrived at a MASH unit alive typically had a 97% chance of survival.[359]The limitations of jet aircraft forclose air supporthighlighted the helicopter's potential in the role, leading to the development of the helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War.[356]
U.S. threat of atomic warfare
On 5 November 1950, the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either of their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. President Truman ordered the transfer of nineMark 4 nuclear bombs"to the Air Force'sNinth Bomb Group,the designated carrier of the weapons... [and] signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets ", which he never transmitted.[360]
Many U.S. officials viewed the deployment of nuclear-capable (but not nuclear-armed) B-29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve theBerlin Blockadeof 1948–1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B-29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without theircores), to remind the Soviets of U.S. offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet toGuamwas leaked toThe New York Times.As UN forces retreated to Pusan, and theCIAreported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.[361]
As PVA forces pushed back the UN forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always [under] active consideration", with control under the local military commander.[361]Indian ambassadorK. Madhava Panikkarreports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat... The PRC's propaganda against the U.S. was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities."[170][362][363]
After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December with UK Prime Minister andCommonwealthspokesmanClement Attlee,French PremierRené Pleven,and French Foreign MinisterRobert Schumanto discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The U.S.' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China to escalate [the Korean War]", but because UN allies—notably the UK, the Commonwealth, and France—were concerned about ageopoliticalimbalance renderingNATOdefenseless while the U.S. fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe.[170][364]The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the U.S. would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster".[361]
On 6 December after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN armies from northern North Korea, GeneralJ. Lawton Collins(Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, AdmiralC. Turner Joy,GeneralGeorge E. Stratemeyerand staff officers Major GeneralDoyle Hickey,Major GeneralCharles A. Willoughbyand Major GeneralEdwin K. Wrightmet in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.[170]
- In the first scenario: If the PVA continued attacking in full and the UN Command was forbidden to blockade and bomb China, and without Taiwanese reinforcements, and without an increase in U.S. forces until April 1951 (four National Guard divisions were due to arrive), then atomic bombs might be used in North Korea.[170]
- In the second scenario: If the PVA continued full attacks and the UN Command blockaded China and had effective aerial reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese interior, and the Taiwanese soldiers were maximally exploited, and tactical atomic bombing was to hand, then the UN forces could hold positions deep in North Korea.[170]
- In the third scenario: if China agreed not to cross the 38th parallel border, MacArthur would recommend UN acceptance of an armistice disallowing PVA and KPA troops south of the parallel, and requiring PVA and KPA guerrillas to withdraw northwards. The Eighth Army would remain to protect the Seoul–Incheon area, while X Corps would retreat to Pusan. A UN commission should supervise implementation of the armistice.[170]
Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.[361]
In 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino-Korean frontier, ground crews at theKadena Air Base,Okinawa,assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores." In October 1951, the United States effectedOperation Hudson Harborto establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B-29 bombers practiced individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated fromYokota Air Basein east-central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, [and] ground control of bomb aiming". The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare".[365][366][367][368][369]
Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B-29 deployment is unclear, and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B-29s returned to the United States in June.[361]
Despite the greater destructive power that atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of PVA/KPA forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea's behalf, the threat of a possible nuclear exchange was unimportant in the decision not to deploy atomic bombs; their use offered little operational advantage and would undesirably lower the "threshold" for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts.[370]
When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953, he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, he feared that doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without U.S. nuclear weapons deployed near battle.[361]
Aftermath
North Korea
As a result of the war, "North Korea had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society". After the armistice, Kim Il Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all... outstanding debts", and promised to grant North Korea one billionrublesin monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of theSoviet Blocalso contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, [and] medical supplies". China canceled North Korea's war debts, provided 800 millionyuan,promised trade cooperation and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.[316]Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped[371]and continues to be atotalitariandictatorship since the end of the war, with an elaboratecult of personalityaround theKim dynasty.[372][373][374]
Present-day North Korea followsSongun,or "military-first" policy and has thehighest number of military and paramilitary personnelin the world, with 7,769,000 active, reserve and paramilitary personnel, or approximately30% of its population. Its active-duty army of 1.28 million is the fourth largest in the world, after China, the United States and India; consisting of4.9% of its population. North Koreapossesses nuclear weapons.A 2014 UN inquiry into abuses ofhuman rights in North Koreaconcluded that, "the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world," withAmnesty InternationalandHuman Rights Watchholding similar views.[375][376][377][378]
South Korea
Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea, which started from a far lower industrial base than North Korea (the latter contained 80% of Korea's heavy industry in 1945),[29]stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed aMutual Defense Treaty.
South Koreananti-Americanismafter the war was fueled by the presence and behavior ofUnited States Forces Koreamilitary personnel and U.S. support for Park's authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s.[379]However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46% favorable in 2003 to 74% favorable in 2011,[380]making South Korea one of the most pro-U.S. countries.[381]
A large number ofmixed-race"GI babies" (offspring of U.S. and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954.[382]The U.S.Immigration Act of 1952legalized thenaturalizationof non-Blacks and non-Whites as U.S. citizens and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea. With the passage of theImmigration Act of 1965,which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans,Koreansbecame one of the fastest-growingAsiangroups in the United States.[383]
Communism
Mao Zedong's decision to take on the United States was a direct attempt to confront what the communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese communist regime was still consolidating its own power. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the U.S. was inevitable after the U.S. entered the war, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community. In his later years, Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China's entrance into the Korean War. Inside mainland China, the war improved the long-term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-communist dissent.[384]
The Chinese government has encouraged the viewpoint that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China's engaging the strongest power in the world with an underequipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China'shistorical humiliationsby Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the PLA and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long-term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kaishek's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day.[384]Anti-U.S. sentiments,which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, were ingrained into Chinese culture during thecommunist propagandacampaigns of the Korean War.[385]
The Korean War affected other participant combatants.Turkey,for example, entered NATO in 1952,[386]and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and traderelations with South Korea.[387]The war also played a role in therefugee crisis in Turkey in 1950–1951.
See also
- Korean War in popular culture
- Korean–American Volunteer Group
- List of books about the Korean War
- List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients
- List of Korean War weapons
- List of military equipment used in the Korean War
- Partisans in the Korean War
- Transfer of People's Volunteer Army soldiers' remains from South Korea to China
- UN Command Military Armistice Commissionoperating from 1953 to the present
- UN Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea
- UN Temporary Commission on Korea
- United Service Organizations
War memorials
- Korean War Memorial Wall,mapBrampton,Ontario
- Korean War Veterans Memorial,Washington, D.C.
- Memorial of the War to Resist US Aggression and Aid Korea,Dandong,China
- National War Memorial (New Zealand)
- Philadelphia Korean War Memorial
- United Nations Memorial Cemetery,Busan,Republic of Korea
- Memorial of Turks Who Fought in Korea,Ankara,Turkey(in Turkish)
- Victorious War Museum,Pyongyang, North Korea
- War Memorial of Korea,Yongsan-dong,Yongsan-gu, Seoul, South Korea
- National Memorial for Abductees during the Korean War,Munsan,Paju, South Korea
Notes
- ^On 9 July 1951 troop constituents were: US: 70.4%; ROK: 23.3%; other UNC: 6.3%.[1]
- ^End of physical conflict and signing of an armistice. De jure, North and South Korea are still at war.
- ^theProvisional People's Committee of North Koreaadministered by the Soviets and theUnited States Army Military Government in Koreain the south
- ^At the time, China as a permanent member of theUnited Nations Security Council(UNSC) was represented byTaipeinotBeijing.This prompted the Soviet Union's boycott of the UN and absence from the UNSC.[23]
- ^See 50 U.S.C. S 1601: "All powers and authorities possessed by the President, any other officer or employee of the Federal Government, or any executive agency... as a result of the existence of any declaration of national emergency in effect on 14 September 1976 are terminated two years from 14 September 1976.";Jolley v. INS,441 F.2d 1245, 1255 n.17 (5th Cir. 1971).
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Total Strength 602,902 troops
- ^
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Republic of Korea – 590,911
Colombia – 1,068
United States – 302,483
Belgium – 900
United Kingdom – 14,198
South Africa – 826
Canada – 6,146
Netherlands – 819
Turkey – 5,453
Luxembourg – 44
Australia – 2,282
Philippines – 1,496
New Zealand – 1,385
Thailand – 1,204[clarification needed]
Ethiopia – 1,271
Greece – 1,263
France – 1,119 - ^
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Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2 million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of non-hostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2 million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat.
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- Cumings, Bruce(2005).Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History.New York:W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0393327021.
- Cumings, Bruce(1981). "3, 4".Origins of the Korean War.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-8976966124.
- Dear, Ian;Foot, M.R.D.(1995).The Oxford Companion to World War II.Oxford, NY:Oxford University Press.p.516.ISBN978-0198662259.
- Goulden, Joseph C (1983).Korea: The Untold Story of the War.New York:McGraw-Hill.p. 17.ISBN978-0070235809.
- Halberstam, David(2007).The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War.New York: Hyperion.ISBN978-1401300524.
- Jager, Sheila Miyoshi(2013).Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea.London: Profile Books.ISBN978-1846680670.
- Kim, Yǒng-jin (1973).Major Powers and Korea.Silver Spring, MD: Research Institute on Korean Affairs.OCLC251811671.
- Lee, Steven Hugh (14 June 2014). "The Korean War in History and Historiography".The Journal of American-East Asian Relations.21(2):185–206.doi:10.1163/18765610-02102010.ISSN1058-3947.
- Lin, L., et al. "Whose history? An analysis of the Korean war in history textbooks from the United States, South Korea, Japan, and China".Social Studies100.5 (2009): 222–232.onlineArchived17 February 2022 at theWayback Machine
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- Matray, James I., and Donald W. Boose Jr, eds.The Ashgate research companion to the Korean War(2014)excerptArchived1 September 2021 at theWayback Machine;covers historiography
- Matray, James I. "Conflicts in Korea" in Daniel S. Margolies, ed.A Companion to Harry S. Truman(2012) pp 498–531; emphasis on historiography.
- Millett, Allan R. (2007).The Korean War: The Essential Bibliography.The Essential Bibliography Series. Dulles, VA: Potomac Books Inc.ISBN978-1574889765.
- Mossman, Billy C. (1990).Ebb and Flow, November 1950 – July 1951.United States Army in the Korean War. Vol. 5. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army.OCLC16764325.Retrieved3 May2010.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
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- Rees, David (1964).Korea: The Limited War.New York: St Martin's.OCLC1078693.
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- Stueck, William W. (2002),Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History,Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0691118475
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External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
Travel informationfrom Wikivoyage
- Records ofthe United Nations Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea (UNCURK) (1950–1973)Archived21 April 2021 at theWayback Machineat the United Nations Archives
Historical
- THE KOREAN WAR (1) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1997 (E-BOOK)Archived9 July 2023 at theWayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (1) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1997 (PDF)Archived7 June 2023 at theWayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (2) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1998 (E-BOOK)Archived9 July 2023 at theWayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (2) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1999 (PDF)Archived7 June 2023 at theWayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (3) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1999 (E-BOOK)Archived9 July 2023 at theWayback Machine
- THE KOREAN WAR (3) - ROK Ministry of National Defense Institute for Military History, 1998 (PDF)Archived7 June 2023 at theWayback Machine
- History of the Just Fatherland Liberation War of the Korean People (PDF)The Research Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
- Anniversary of the Korean War Armistice: Truman on Acheson's Crucial Role in Going to WarArchived21 February 2015 at theWayback MachineShapell Manuscript Foundation
- Korean War resources, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential LibraryArchived26 June 2014 at theWayback Machine
- North Korea International Documentation ProjectArchived30 May 2021 at theWayback Machine
- Grand Valley State University Veteran's History Project digital collection
- The Forgotten War, RememberedArchived9 March 2021 at theWayback Machine– four testimonials inThe New York Times
- Collection of Books and Research Materials on the Korean WarArchived27 April 2021 at theWayback Machinean online collection of theUnited States Army Center of Military History
- Korean War, US Army Signal Corps Photograph CollectionU.S. Army Heritage and Education Center, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
- Koreanwar-educator.orgArchived14 March 2021 at theWayback Machine
- The short filmFilm No. 927is available for free viewing and download at theInternet Archive.
Media
- West Point Atlas of the Korean WarArchived16 March 2021 at theWayback Machine
- The Korean War You Never Knew– slideshows byLifemagazine
- U.S. Army Korea Media Center official Korean War online image archiveArchived8 March 2021 at theWayback Machine
- Rare pictures of the Korean War from the U.S. Library of Congress and National ArchivesArchived5 November 2013 at theWayback Machine
- Land of the Morning Calm Canadians in Korea– multimedia project including veteran interviews
- PathéArchived6 January 2012 at theWayback MachineOnline newsreel archive featuring films on the war
- CBC Digital Archives – Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean WarArchived8 November 2012 at theWayback Machine
- Uncertain Enemies: Soviet Pilots in the Korean WarArchived15 August 2021 at theWayback Machine.Air Power History.(Spring 1997).44,1, 32–45.
Organizations
- Korea Defense Veterans of America
- Korean War Ex-POW Association
- Korean War Veterans AssociationArchived7 March 2021 at theWayback Machine
- The Center for the Study of the Korean War
Memorials
- Korean Children's War MemorialArchived4 March 2021 at theWayback Machine
- Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War MemorialArchived26 February 2021 at theWayback Machine