Wikipedia

Lake

"Lakes" redirects here. For other uses, seeLake (disambiguation)andLakes (disambiguation).

Alakeis an often naturally occurring, relatively large and fixedbody of wateron the Earth's surface. It is localized in abasinor interconnected basins surrounded bydry land.[1]Lakes lie completely on land and are separate from theocean,although they may be connected with the ocean by rivers, such asLake Ontario.Most lakes arefreshwaterand account for almost all the world's surface freshwater, but some aresalt lakeswithsalinitieseven higher than that ofseawater.Lakes vary significantly in surface area and volume of water.

Lac Gentauin theOssau Valleyof thePyrenees,France
Lake Michiganduring a storm near theLudington Lighthouse

Lakes are typically larger and deeper thanponds,which are also water-filled basins on land, although there are no official definitions or scientific criteria distinguishing the two.[2]Lakes are also distinct fromlagoons,which are shallowtidal poolsdammed bysandbarsatcoastalregions of oceans or large lakes. Most lakes are fed bysprings,and both fed and drained bycreeksandrivers,but some lakes areendorheicwithout any outflow, whilevolcanic lakesare filled directly byprecipitationrunoffsand do not have any inflow streams.[3]

Natural lakes are generally found inmountainousareas (i.e.alpine lakes),dormantvolcanic craters,rift zonesand areas with ongoingglaciation.Other lakes are found indepressed landformsor along the courses of mature rivers, where a river channel has widened over a basin formed by erodedfloodplainsandwetlands.Some parts of the world have many lakes formed by the chaotic drainage patterns left over from thelast ice age.All lakes are temporary overlong periods of time,as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.

Artificially controlled lakesare known asreservoirs,and are usually constructed for industrial or agricultural use, forhydroelectric powergeneration, for supplying domesticdrinking water,for ecological or recreational purposes, or for other human activities.

Etymology, meaning, and usage of "lake"

The wordlakecomes fromMiddle Englishlake('lake, pond, waterway'), fromOld Englishlacu('pond, pool, stream'), fromProto-Germanic*lakō('pond, ditch, slow moving stream'), from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*leǵ-('to leak, drain'). Cognates includeDutchlaak('lake, pond, ditch'),Middle Low Germanlāke('water pooled in a riverbed, puddle') as in:de:Wolfslake,de:Butterlake,GermanLache('pool, puddle'), andIcelandiclækur('slow flowing stream'). Also related are the English wordsleakandleach.

There is considerable uncertainty about defining the difference between lakes andponds,and neither term has an internationally accepted definition across scientific disciplines or political boundaries.[4]For example,limnologistshave defined lakes as water bodies that are simply a larger version of a pond, which can have wave action on the shoreline or where wind-induced turbulence plays a major role in mixing the water column. None of these definitions completely excludes ponds and all are difficult to measure. For this reason, simple size-based definitions are increasingly used to separate ponds and lakes. Definitions forlakerange in minimum sizes for a body of water from 2 hectares (5 acres)[5]: 331 [6]to 8 hectares (20 acres).[7]Pioneering animal ecologistCharles Eltonregarded lakes as waterbodies of 40 hectares (99 acres) or more.[8]The termlakeis also used to describe a feature such asLake Eyre,which is a dry basin most of the time but may become filled under seasonal conditions of heavy rainfall. In common usage, many lakes bear names ending with the wordpond,and a lesser number of names ending withlakeare, in quasi-technical fact, ponds. One textbook illustrates this point with the following: "In Newfoundland, for example, almost every lake is called a pond, whereas in Wisconsin, almost every pond is called a lake."[9]

Onehydrologybook proposes to define the term "lake" as a body of water with the following five characteristics:[4]

  1. It partially or totally fills one or several basins connected bystraits;
  2. It has essentially the same water level in all parts (except for relatively short-lived variations caused by wind, varying ice cover, large inflows, etc.);
  3. It does not have regular intrusion ofseawater;
  4. A considerable portion of thesedimentsuspended in the water is captured by the basins (for this to happen they need to have a sufficiently small inflow-to-volume ratio);
  5. The area measured at the mean water level exceeds an arbitrarily chosen threshold (for instance, onehectare).

With the exception of criterion 3, the others have been accepted or elaborated upon by other hydrology publications.[10][11]

Distribution

Lake Eyre's shape and depth as a gradient map

The majority of lakes on Earth arefreshwater,and most lie in theNorthern Hemisphereat higherlatitudes.[12]Canada,with aderanged drainage system,has an estimated 31,752 lakes larger than 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) in surface area.[13]The total number of lakes in Canada is unknown but is estimated to be at least 2 million.[14]Finlandhas 168,000 lakes of 500 square metres (5,400 sq ft) in area, or larger, of which 57,000 are large (10,000 square metres (110,000 sq ft) or larger).[15]

Most lakes have at least one natural outflow in the form of ariverorstream,which maintain a lake's average level by allowing the drainage of excess water.[3][16]Some lakes do not have a natural outflow and lose water solely by evaporation or underground seepage, or both. These are termedendorheiclakes.

Many lakes are artificial and are constructed forhydroelectricpower generation, aesthetic purposes,recreationalpurposes, industrial use,agriculturaluse, or domesticwater supply.

The number of lakes on Earth is undetermined because most lakes and ponds are very small and do not appear on maps orsatellite imagery.[17][18][19][20]Despite this uncertainty, a large number of studies agree that small ponds are much more abundant than large lakes. For example, one widely cited study estimated that Earth has 304 million lakes and ponds, and that 91% of these are 1 hectare (2.5 acres) or less in area.[17]Despite the overwhelming abundance of ponds, almost all of Earth's lake water is found in fewer than 100 large lakes; this is because lake volumescalessuperlinearly with lake area.[21]

Extraterrestrial lakes exist on the moonTitan,which orbits the planetSaturn.[22]The shape of lakes on Titan is very similar to those on Earth.[19][23][24]Lakes were formerly present on the surface of Mars, but are nowdry lake beds.[18][25][26]

Types

In 1957,G. Evelyn Hutchinsonpublished a monograph titledA Treatise on Limnology,[27]which is regarded as a landmark discussion and classification of all major lake types, their origin, morphometric characteristics, and distribution.[28][29][30]Hutchinson presented in his publication a comprehensive analysis of the origin of lakes and proposed what is a widely accepted classification of lakes according to their origin. This classification recognizes 11 major lake types that are divided into 76 subtypes. The 11 major lake types are:[28][29][30]

  • tectonic lakes
  • volcanic lakes
  • glacial lakes
  • fluvial lakes
  • solution lakes
  • landslide lakes
  • aeolian lakes
  • shoreline lakes
  • organic lakes
  • anthropogenic lakes
  • meteorite (extraterrestrial impact) lakes

Tectonic lakes

Tectonic lakes are lakes formed by the deformation and resulting lateral and vertical movements of the Earth's crust. These movements include faulting, tilting, folding, and warping. Some of the largest lakes on Earth arerift lakesoccupying rift valleys, e.g. Central African Rift lakes andLake Baikal.Other well-known tectonic lakes,Caspian Sea,theSea of Aral,and other lakes from the Pontocaspian occupy basins that have been separated from the sea by the tectonic uplift of the sea floor above the ocean level.[27][29][28][30]

Often, the tectonic action of crustal extension has created an alternating series of parallelgrabensandhorststhat form elongate basins alternating with mountain ranges. Not only does this promote the creation of lakes by the disruption of preexisting drainage networks, it also creates within arid regionsendorheic basinsthat containsalt lakes(also calledsalinelakes). They form where there is no natural outlet, a high evaporation rate and the drainage surface of thewater tablehas a higher-than-normalsaltcontent. Examples of these salt lakes includeGreat Salt Lakeand theDead Sea.Another type of tectonic lake caused by faulting issag ponds.[27][29][28][30]

Volcanic lakes

The crater lake ofMount Rinjani,Indonesia
Main article:Volcanogenic lake

Volcanic lakes are lakes that occupy either local depressions, e.g. craters andmaars,or larger basins, e.g.calderas,created byvolcanism.Crater lakesare formed involcanic cratersand calderas, which fill up with precipitation more rapidly than they empty via either evaporation, groundwater discharge, or a combination of both. Sometimes the latter are called caldera lakes, although often no distinction is made. An example isCrater LakeinOregon,in the caldera ofMount Mazama.The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption that led to thesubsidenceof Mount Mazama around 4860 BCE. Other volcanic lakes are created when either rivers or streams are dammed bylava flowsor volcaniclahars.[27][29][28][30]The basin which is nowMalheur Lake,Oregonwas created when a lava flow dammed theMalheur River.[31]Among all lake types, volcanic crater lakes most closely approximate a circular shape.[3]

Glacial lakes

Lake Kaniereis a glacial lake in theWest Coastregion ofNew Zealand.
Main article:Glacial lake

Glacial lakes are lakes created by the direct action of glaciers and continental ice sheets. A wide variety of glacial processes create enclosed basins. As a result, there are a wide variety of different types of glacial lakes and it is often difficult to define clear-cut distinctions between different types of glacial lakes and lakes influenced by other activities. The general types of glacial lakes that have been recognized are lakes in direct contact with ice, glacially carved rock basins and depressions, morainic and outwash lakes, and glacial drift basins. Glacial lakes are the most numerous lakes in the world. Most lakes innorthern Europeand North America have been either influenced or created by the latest, but not last, glaciation, to have covered the region.[27][29][28][30]Glacial lakes includeproglacial lakes,subglacial lakes,finger lakes,and epishelf lakes. Epishelf lakes are highlystratifiedlakes in which a layer of freshwater, derived from ice and snow melt, is dammed behind anice shelfthat is attached to the coastline. They are mostly found in Antarctica.[32]

Fluvial lakes

Fluvial (or riverine)[33]lakes are lakes produced by running water. These lakes includeplunge pool lakes,fluviatile dams and meander lakes.

Oxbow lakes

TheNowitna Riverin Alaska. Two oxbow lakes – a short one at the bottom of the picture and a longer, more curved one at the middle-right.

The most common type of fluvial lake is a crescent-shaped lake called anoxbow lakedue to the distinctive curved shape. They can form in river valleys as a result of meandering. The slow-moving river forms a sinuous shape as the outer side of bends are eroded away more rapidly than the inner side. Eventually a horseshoe bend is formed and the river cuts through the narrow neck. This new passage then forms the main passage for the river and the ends of the bend become silted up, thus forming a bow-shaped lake.[27][28][29][30]Their crescent shape gives oxbow lakes a higher perimeter to area ratio than other lake types.[3]

Fluviatile dams

These form where sediment from a tributary blocks the main river.[34]

Lateral lakes

These form where sediment from the main river blocks a tributary, usually in the form of alevee.[33]

Floodplain lakes

Lakes formed by other processes responsible forfloodplainbasin creation. During high floods they are flushed with river water. There are four types: 1. Confluent floodplain lake, 2. Contrafluent-confluent floodplain lake, 3. Contrafluent floodplain lake, 4. Profundal floodplain lake.[35]

Solution lakes

A solution lake is a lake occupying a basin formed by surface dissolution of bedrock. In areas underlain by soluble bedrock, its solution by precipitation and percolating water commonly produce cavities. These cavities frequently collapse to formsinkholesthat form part of the localkarst topography.Wheregroundwaterlies near the grounds surface, a sinkhole will be filled water as a solution lake.[27][29]If such a lake consists of a large area of standing water that occupies an extensive closed depression in limestone, it is also called akarst lake.Smaller solution lakes that consist of a body of standing water in a closed depression within a karst region are known askarst ponds.[36]Limestone caves often contain pools of standing water, which are known asunderground lakes.Classic examples of solution lakes are abundant in the karst regions at theDalmatian coastofCroatiaand within large parts ofFlorida.[27]

Landslide lakes

A landslide lake is created by theblockageof ariver valleyby eithermudflows,rockslides,orscrees.Such lakes are most common in mountainous regions. Although landslide lakes may be large and quite deep, they are typically short-lived.[27][28][29][30]An example of a landslide lake isQuake Lake,which formed as a result of the1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake.[37]

Most landslide lakes disappear in the first few months after formation, but a landslide dam can burst suddenly at a later stage and threaten the population downstream when the lake water drains out. In 1911, an earthquake triggered a landslide that blocked a deep valley in thePamir Mountainsregion ofTajikistan,forming theSarez Lake.TheUsoi Damat the base of the valley has remained in place for more than 100 years but the terrain below the lake is in danger of a catastrophic flood if the dam were to fail during a future earthquake.[38]

Tal-y-llyn Lakein northWalesis a landslide lake dating back to the last glaciation in Wales some 20000 years ago.

Aeolian lakes

Aeolian lakes are produced bywind action.These lakes are found mainly inaridenvironments, although some aeolian lakes arerelictlandforms indicative of aridpaleoclimates.Aeolian lakes consist of lake basins dammed by wind-blown sand; interdunal lakes that lie between well-orientedsand dunes;anddeflation basinsformed by wind action under previously arid paleoenvironments.Moses LakeinWashington,United States, was originally a shallow natural lake and an example of a lake basin dammed by wind-blown sand.[27][28][29][30]

China'sBadain Jaran Desertis a unique landscape of megadunes and elongated interdunal aeolian lakes, particularly concentrated in the southeastern margin of the desert.[39]

Shoreline lakes

Shoreline lakes are generally lakes created by blockage of estuaries or by the uneven accretion of beach ridges by longshore and other currents. They include maritime coastal lakes, ordinarily in drowned estuaries; lakes enclosed by two tombolos or spits connecting an island to the mainland; lakes cut off from larger lakes by a bar; or lakes divided by the meeting of two spits.[27][29][28][30]

Organic lakes

Organic lakes are lakes created by the actions of plants and animals. On the whole they are relatively rare in occurrence and quite small in size. In addition, they typically have ephemeral features relative to the other types of lakes. The basins in which organic lakes occur are associated with beaver dams, coral lakes, or dams formed by vegetation.[29][30]

Peat lakes

Peatlakes are a form of organic lake. They form where a buildup of partly decomposed plant material in a wet environment leaves the vegetated surface below thewater tablefor a sustained period of time. They are often low in nutrients and mildly acidic, with bottom waters low in dissolved oxygen.[40]

Artificial lakes

See also:Reservoir,water storage,andretention basin
Lusatian Lake District,Germany, Europe's largest artificial lake district.

Artificial lakes or anthropogenic lakes are large waterbodies created byhuman activity.They can be formed by the intentionaldammingof rivers and streams, rerouting of water to inundate a previously drybasin,or the deliberate filling of abandonedexcavation pitsby eitherprecipitationrunoff,ground water,or a combination of both.[29][30]Artificial lakes may be used asstorage reservoirsthat providedrinking waterfor nearbysettlements,to generatehydroelectricity,forflood management,for supplyingagricultureoraquaculture,or to provide an aquaticsanctuaryforparksandnature reserves.

TheUpper Silesianregion ofsouthern Polandcontains an anthropogenic lake district consisting of more than 4,000 water bodies created by human activity. The diverse origins of these lakes include: reservoirs retained by dams, flooded mines, water bodies formed in subsidence basins and hollows,leveeponds, and residual water bodies following river regulation.[41]Same for the Lusatian Lake District, Germany.

See:List of notable artificial lakes in the United States

Meteorite (extraterrestrial impact) lakes

Main article:Impact crater lake

Meteorite lakes, also known ascrater lakes(not to be confused withvolcanic crater lakes), are created by catastrophicimpactswith the Earth by extraterrestrial objects (eithermeteoritesorasteroids).[27][29][30]Examples of meteorite lakes areLonar Lakein India,[42]Lake El'gygytgynin northeast Siberia,[43]and thePingualuit craterlake in Quebec, Canada.[44]As in the cases of El'gygytgyn and Pingualuit, meteorite lakes can contain unique and scientifically valuable sedimentary deposits associated with long records of paleoclimatic changes.[43][44]

Other classification methods

Thesekettle lakesinAlaskawere formed by a retreating glacier.
Ice melting onLake Balatonin Hungary

In addition to the mode of origin, lakes have been named and classified according to various other important factors such asthermal stratification,oxygen saturation, seasonal variations in lake volume and water level,salinityof the water mass, relative seasonal permanence, degree of outflow, and so on. The names used by the lay public and in the scientific community for different types of lakes are often informally derived from the morphology of the lakes' physical characteristics or other factors. Also, different cultures and regions of the world have their own popular nomenclature.

By thermal stratification

One important method of lake classification is on the basis of thermal stratification, which has a major influence on the animal and plant life inhabiting a lake, and the fate and distribution of dissolved and suspended material in the lake. For example, the thermal stratification, as well as the degree and frequency of mixing, has a strong control over the distribution of oxygen within the lake.

ProfessorF.-A. Forel,[45]also referred to as the "Father of limnology", was the first scientist to classify lakes according to their thermal stratification.[46]His system of classification was later modified and improved upon byHutchinsonand Löffler.[47]As thedensityof water varies with temperature, with a maximum at +4 degrees Celsius, thermal stratification is an important physical characteristic of a lake that controls thefaunaandflora,sedimentation, chemistry, and other aspects of individual lakes. First, the colder, denser water typically forms a layer near the bottom, which is called thehypolimnion.Second, normally overlying the hypolimnion is a transition zone known as themetalimnion.Finally, overlying the metalimnion is a surface layer of warmer water with a lower density, called theepilimnion.This typical stratification sequence can vary widely, depending on the specific lake or the time of year, or a combination of both.[29][46][47]The classification of lakes by thermal stratification presupposes lakes with sufficient depth to form a hypolimnion; accordingly, very shallow lakes are excluded from this classification system.[29][47]

Based upon their thermal stratification, lakes are classified as eitherholomictic,with a uniform temperature and density from top to bottom at a given time of year, ormeromictic,with layers of water of different temperature and density that do not intermix. The deepest layer of water in a meromictic lake does not contain any dissolved oxygen so there are no livingaerobic organisms.Consequently, the layers of sediment at the bottom of a meromictic lake remain relatively undisturbed, which allows for the development oflacustrine deposits.In a holomictic lake, the uniformity of temperature and density allows the lake waters to completely mix. Based upon thermal stratification and frequency of turnover, holomictic lakes are divided intoamictic lakes,coldmonomictic lakes,dimictic lakes,warm monomictic lakes,polymictic lakes,and oligomictic lakes.[29][47]

Lake stratificationdoes not always result from a variation in density because of thermal gradients. Stratification can also result from a density variation caused by gradients in salinity. In this case, the hypolimnion and epilimnion are separated not by a thermocline but by ahalocline,which is sometimes referred to as achemocline.[29][47]

By seasonal variations in water level and volume

Lakes are informally classified and named according to the seasonal variation in their lake level and volume. Some of the names include:

  • Ephemeral lake is a short-lived lake or pond.[48]If it fills with water and dries up (disappears) seasonally it is known as anintermittent lake[49]They often fillpoljes.[50]
  • Dry lakeis a popular name for an ephemeral lake that contains water only intermediately at irregular and infrequent intervals.[36][51]
  • Perennial lake is a lake that has water in its basin throughout the year and is not subject to extreme fluctuations in level.[36][48]
  • Playa lake is a typically shallow, intermittent lake that covers or occupies a playa either in wet seasons or in especially wet years but subsequently drying up in an arid or semiarid region.[36][51]
  • Vleiis a name used inSouth Africafor a shallow lake which varies considerably in level with the seasons.[52]

By water chemistry

Lakes may be informally classified and named according to the general chemistry of their water mass. Using this classification method, the lake types include:

  • Anacid lakecontains water with a below-neutralpHof less than 6.5. A lake is considered to be highly acidic if its pH drops below 5.5, leading to biological consequences. Such lakes include: acidicpit lakesoccupying abandoned mines and excavations; naturally acidic lakes ofigneousandmetamorphiclandscapes;peat bogsin northern regions;crater lakesof active and dormant volcanoes; and lakes acidified byacid rain.[53][54][55]
  • Asalt lake,also known as asaline lakeorbrine lake,is an inland body of water situated in an arid or semiarid region, with no outlet to the sea, containing a high concentration of dissolved neutral salts (principallysodium chloride). Examples include the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and the Dead Sea in southwestern Asia.[36][51]
  • Analkali sink,also known as analkali flatorsalt flat,is a shallow saline feature that can be found in low-lying areas of arid regions and in groundwater discharge zones. These features are typically classified asdry lakes,orplayas,because they are periodically flooded by rain or flood events and then dry up during drier intervals, leaving accumulations of brines and evaporitic minerals.[36][51]
  • Asalt panis a small shallow natural depression in which water accumulates and evaporates, leaving a salt deposit, or the shallow lake ofbrackish waterthat occupies a salt pan. (The term "salt pan" comes fromopen-pan salt making,a method of extracting salt from brine using large open pans.)[36]
  • Asaline panis another name for anephemeral acid saline lakewhich precipitates a bottom crust that is subsequently modified during subaerial exposure.[36]

Composed of other liquids

  • Lava lakeis a large volume of molten lava, usually basaltic, contained in a volcanic vent, crater, or broad depression.[56]
  • Hydrocarbon lakesare bodies of liquidethaneandmethanethat occupy depressions on the surface ofTitan.They were detected by the Cassini–Huygens space probe.[57]

Paleolakes

Apaleolake(alsopalaeolake) is a lake that existed in the past when hydrological conditions were different.[28]Quaternarypaleolakes can often be identified on the basis ofrelictlacustrine landforms, such as relict lake plains and coastal landforms that form recognizable relict shorelines calledpaleoshorelines.Paleolakes can also be recognized by characteristicsedimentarydeposits that accumulated in them and anyfossilsthat might be contained in these sediments. The paleoshorelines and sedimentary deposits of paleolakes provide evidence for prehistoric hydrological changes during the times that they existed.[28][58]

There are two types of paleolake:

  • Aformer lakeis a paleolake that no longer exists. Such lakes includeprehistoriclakes and those that have permanently dried up, often as the result of eitherevaporationor human intervention. An example of a former lake isOwens Lakein California, United States. Former lakes are a common feature of theBasin and Rangearea of southwestern North America.[59]
  • Ashrunken lakeis a paleolake that still exists but has considerably decreased in size over geological time. An example of a shrunken lake isLake Agassiz,which once covered much of central North America. Two notable remnants of Lake Agassiz areLake WinnipegandLake Winnipegosis.[59]

Paleolakes are of scientific and economic importance. For example, Quaternary paleolakes in semidesert basins are important for two reasons: they played an extremely significant, if transient, role in shaping the floors andpiedmontsof many basins; and their sediments contain enormous quantities of geologic andpaleontologicinformation concerning past environments.[60]In addition, the organic-rich deposits of pre-Quaternary paleolakes are important either for the thick deposits ofoil shaleandshale gascontained in them, or as source rocks ofpetroleumandnatural gas.Although of significantly less economic importance, strata deposited along the shore of paleolakes sometimes containcoal seams.[61][62]

Characteristics

Lakes can have significant cultural importance. TheWest LakeofHangzhouhas inspired romantic poets throughout the ages, and has been an important influence on garden designs in China, Japan and Korea.[63]
Lake Mapourika,New Zealand
Five Flower Lake inJiuzhaigou,Sichuan

Lakes have numerous features in addition to lake type, such asdrainage basin(also known as catchment area), inflow and outflow,nutrientcontent,dissolved oxygen,pollutants,pH,andsedimentation.

Changes in the level of a lake are controlled by the difference between the input and output compared to the total volume of the lake. Significant input sources are precipitation onto the lake, runoff carried by streams and channels from the lake'scatchmentarea,groundwaterchannels and aquifers, and artificial sources from outside the catchment area. Output sources are evaporation from the lake, surface and groundwater flows, and any extraction of lake water by humans. As climate conditions and human water requirements vary, these will create fluctuations in the lake level.

Lakes can be alsocategorizedon the basis of their richness in nutrients, which typically affect plant growth. Nutrient-poor lakes are said to beoligotrophicand are generally clear, having a low concentration of plant life.Mesotrophic lakeshave good clarity and an average level of nutrients.Eutrophiclakes are enriched with nutrients, resulting in good plant growth and possiblealgal blooms.Hypertrophiclakes are bodies of water that have been excessively enriched with nutrients. These lakes typically have poor clarity and are subject to devastating algal blooms. Lakes typically reach this condition due to human activities, such as heavy use of fertilizers in the lake catchment area. Such lakes are of little use to humans and have a poorecosystemdue to decreased dissolved oxygen.

Due to the unusual relationship between water'stemperatureand itsdensity,lakes form layers calledthermoclines,layers of drastically varying temperature relative to depth. Fresh water is most dense at about 4 degrees Celsius (39.2 °F) at sea level. When the temperature of the water at the surface of a lake reaches the same temperature as deeper water, as it does during the cooler months intemperateclimates, the water in the lake can mix, bringing oxygen-starved water up from the depths and bringing oxygen down to decomposing sediments. Deep temperate lakes can maintain a reservoir of cold water year-round, which allows some cities to tap that reservoir fordeep lake water cooling.

Lake Teletskoye,Siberia

Since the surface water of deeptropicallakes never reaches the temperature of maximum density, there is no process that makes the water mix. The deeper layer becomes oxygen starved and can become saturated with carbon dioxide, or other gases such as sulfur dioxide if there is even a trace ofvolcanic activity.Exceptional events, such as earthquakes or landslides, can cause mixing which rapidly brings the deep layers up to the surface and release a vast cloud of gas which lay trapped in solution in the colder water at the bottom of the lake. This is called alimnic eruption.An example isthe disaster at Lake NyosinCameroon.The amount of gas that can be dissolved in water is directly related to pressure. As deep water surfaces, the pressure drops and a vast amount of gas comes out of solution. Under these circumstances carbon dioxide is hazardous because it is heavier than air and displaces it, so it may flow down a river valley to human settlements and cause massasphyxiation.

The material at the bottom of a lake, orlake bed,may be composed of a wide variety ofinorganics,such assiltorsand,andorganic material,such as decaying plant or animal matter. The composition of the lake bed has a significant impact on the flora and fauna found within the lake's environs by contributing to the amounts and the types of nutrients available.

A paired (black and white) layer of the varved lake sediments correspond to a year. During winter, when organisms die, carbon is deposited down, resulting to a black layer. At the same year, during summer, only few organic materials are deposited, resulting to a white layer at the lake bed. These are commonly used to track past paleontological events.

Natural lakes provide amicrocosmof living and nonliving elements that are relatively independent of their surrounding environments. Therefore, lake organisms can often be studied in isolation from the lake's surroundings.[64]

Limnology

Main articles:Limnology,Lake ecosystem,andLake aeration
Lura Lakesare the glacial lakes of theLurë Mountains,Albania

Limnologyis the study of inland bodies of water and related ecosystems. Limnology divides lakes into three zones: thelittoral zone,a sloped area close to land; thephoticoropen-water zone,where sunlight is abundant; and the deep-waterprofundalorbenthic zone,where little sunlight can reach. The depth to which light can penetrate depends on theturbidityof the water, which is determined by the density and size of suspendedparticles.A particle will be insuspensionif its weight is less than the random turbidityforcesacting upon it. These particles can be sedimentary orbiologicalin origin (includingalgaeanddetritus) and are responsible for the color of the water. Decaying plant matter, for instance, may account for a yellow or brown color, while algae may cause a greenish coloration. In very shallow water bodies, iron oxides make the water reddish brown. Bottom-dwellingdetritivorousfish stir the mud in search of food and can be the cause of turbid waters.Piscivorousfish contribute to turbidity by eating plant-eating (planktonivorous) fish, thus increasing the amount of algae (see aquatictrophic cascade).

The light depth or transparency is measured using aSecchi disk,a 20-cm (8 in) disk with alternating white and blackquadrants.The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is theSecchi depth,a measure of transparency. The Secchi disk is commonly used to test for eutrophication. For a detailed look at these processes, seelentic ecosystems.

A lake moderates the surrounding region's temperature andclimatebecause water has a very highspecific heat capacity(4,186 J·kg−1·K−1). In the daytime a lake can cool the land beside it with local winds, resulting in asea breeze;in the night it can warm it with aland breeze.

Biological properties

Cross sectional diagram of limnological lake zones (left) and algal community types (right)

Lake zones:

  • Epilittoral:The zone that is entirely above the lake's normal water level and never submerged by lake water
  • Littoral:The zone that encompasses the small area above the normal water level (which is sometimes submerged when the lake's water level increases), reaching to the deepest part of the lake that still allows for submergedmacrophyticgrowth
  • Littoriprofundal:Transition zone commonly aligned with stratified lakes' metalimnions – too deep for macrophytes but includesphotosyntheticalgae and bacteria
  • Profundal:Sedimentary zone containing no vegetation

Algal community types:

  • Epipelic:Algae that grow on sediments
  • Epilithic:Algae that grow on rocks
  • Epipsammic:Algae that grow on (or within) sand
  • Epiphytic:Algae that grow on macrophytes
  • Epizooic:Algae that grow on living animals
  • Metaphyton:Algae present in the littoral zone, not in a state of suspension nor attached to a substratum (such as a macrophyte)[65]

Circulation

Flora and fauna

Disappearance

Ephemeral'Lake Badwater', a lake only noted after heavy winter and spring rainfall,Badwater Basin,Death Valley National Park,9 February 2005.Landsat 5satellite photo
Badwater Basindry lake,15 February 2007.Landsat 5satellite photo

The lake may be infilled with deposited sediment and gradually become awetlandsuch as aswampormarsh.Large water plants, typicallyreeds,accelerate this closing process significantly because they partially decompose to form peat soils that fill the shallows. Conversely, peat soils in a marsh can naturally burn and reverse this process to recreate a shallow lake resulting in a dynamic equilibrium between marsh and lake.[66]This is significant since wildfire has been largely suppressed in the developed world over the past century. This has artificially converted many shallow lakes into emergent marshes. Turbid lakes and lakes with many plant-eating fish tend to disappear more slowly. A "disappearing" lake (barely noticeable on a human timescale) typically has extensive plant mats at the water's edge. These become a new habitat for other plants, likepeat mosswhen conditions are right, and animals, many of which are very rare. Gradually, the lake closes and youngpeatmay form, forming afen.In lowland river valleys where a river canmeander,the presence of peat is explained by the infilling of historicaloxbow lakes.In the final stages ofsuccession,trees can grow in, eventually turning the wetland into a forest.

Some lakes can disappear seasonally. These are calledintermittent lakes,ephemeral lakes,orseasonal lakesand can be found inkarstic terrain.A prime example of an intermittent lake isLake CerknicainSloveniaorLag Prau PulteinGraubünden.Other intermittent lakes are only the result of above-average precipitation in a closed, orendorheic basin,usually filling dry lake beds. This can occur in some of the driest places on earth, likeDeath Valley.This occurred in the spring of 2005, after unusually heavy rains.[67]The lake did not last into the summer, and was quickly evaporated (see photos to right). A more commonly filled lake of this type isSevier Lakeof west-centralUtah.

Sometimes a lake will disappear quickly. On 3 June 2005, inNizhny Novgorod Oblast,Russia, a lake calledLake Beloyevanished in a matter of minutes. News sources reported that government officials theorized that this strange phenomenon may have been caused by a shift in the soil underneath the lake that allowed its water to drain through channels leading to theOka River.[68]

The presence of ground permafrost is important to the persistence of some lakes. Thawing permafrost may explain the shrinking or disappearance of hundreds of large Arctic lakes across western Siberia. The idea here is that rising air and soil temperatures thaw permafrost, allowing the lakes to drain away into the ground.[69]

Some lakes disappear because of human development factors. The shrinkingAral Seais described as being "murdered" by the diversion for irrigation of the rivers feeding it.[citation needed]Between 1990 and 2020, more than half of the world's large lakes decreased in size, in part due toclimate change.[70]

See also:Prairie Lake

Extraterrestrial lakes

Further information:Lakes of Titan
Titan'snorth polar hydrocarbonseas and lakes,as seen in a false-colorCassinisynthetic aperture radarmosaic

Only oneastronomical bodyother than Earth is known to harbor large lakes: Saturn's largest moon,Titan.Photographs andspectroscopic analysisby theCassini–Huygensspacecraftshow liquid ethane on the surface, which is thought to be mixed with liquid methane. The largest lake on Titan isKraken Marewhich, at an estimated 400,000 km2,[71]is roughly five times the size ofLake Superior(~80,000 km2) and nearly the size of all fiveGreat Lakesof North America combined.[72]The second largest Titanean lake,Ligeia Mare,is almost twice the size of Lake Superior, at an estimated 150,000 km2.[73]

Jupiter's large moonIois volcanically active, leading to the accumulation ofsulfurdeposits on the surface. Some photographs taken during theGalileomission appear to show lakes of liquid sulfur in volcanic caldera, though these are more analogous to lakes of lava than of water on Earth.[74]

The planetMarshas only one confirmed lake which is underground and near the south pole.[75]Although the surface of Mars is too cold and has too littleatmospheric pressureto permit permanent surface water, geologic evidence appears to confirm thatancient lakesonce formed on the surface.[76][77]

There are dark basaltic plains on theMoon,similar tolunar mariabut smaller, which are calledlacus(singularlacus,Latinfor "lake" ) because they were thought by early astronomers to be lakes of water.

Notable lakes on Earth

See also:List of lakes
TheCaspian Seais either the world's largest lake or a full-fledgedinland sea[note 1]
Round Tangle Lake, one of theTangle Lakes,2,864 feet (873 m) above sea level ininterior Alaska
  • Thelargest lake by surface areaisCaspian Sea,which is despite its name considered as a lake from the point of view of geography.[78]Its surface area is 143,000 sq. mi./371,000 km2.
    • The second largest lake by surface area, and thelargest freshwater lake by surface area,isLake Michigan-Huron,which is hydrologically a single lake. Its surface area is 45,300 sq. mi./117,400 km2.For those who consider Lake Michigan-Huron to be separate lakes, and Caspian Sea to be asea,Lake Superiorwould be the largest lake at 82,100 km2(31,700 square miles)
  • Lake Baikalis thedeepestlake in the world, located inSiberia,with a bottom at 1,637 metres (5,371 ft). Itsmean depthis also the greatest in the world (749 metres (2,457 ft)). It is also the world'slargest freshwater lake by volume(23,600 cubic kilometres (5,700 cu mi), but much smaller than the Caspian Sea at 78,200 cubic kilometres (18,800 cu mi)), and the second longest (about 630 kilometres (390 mi) from tip to tip).
  • The world'soldest lakeisLake Baikal,followed byLake TanganyikainTanzania.Lake Maracaibois considered by some to be the second-oldest lake on Earth, but since it lies atsea leveland nowadays is a contiguous body of water with the sea, others consider that it has turned into a smallbay.
  • Thelongestlake isLake Tanganyika,with a length of about 660 kilometres (410 mi) (measured along the lake's center line).
    It is also the third largest by volume, the second oldest, and the second deepest (1,470 metres (4,820 ft)) in the world, after Lake Baikal.
  • The world'shighestlake, if size is not a criterion, may be the crater lake ofOjos del Salado,at 6,390 metres (20,965 ft).[79]
  • The world'slowestlake is theDead Sea,bordered byJordanto the east andIsraelandPalestineto the west, at 418 metres (1,371 ft) below sea level. It is also one of the lakes with highestsaltconcentration.
  • Lake Michigan–Huronhas thelongest lake coastlinein the world: about 5,250 kilometres (3,260 mi), excluding the coastline of its many inner islands. Even if it is considered two lakes,Lake Huronalone would still have the longest coastline in the world at 2,980 kilometres (1,850 mi).
  • The largest island in a lake isManitoulin IslandinLake Michigan-Huron,with a surface area of 2,766 square kilometres (1,068 sq mi).Lake Manitou,on Manitoulin Island, is the largest lake on an island in a lake.
  • The largest lake on an island isNettilling LakeonBaffin Island,with an area of 5,542 square kilometres (2,140 sq mi) and a maximum length of 123 kilometres (76 mi).[81]
  • The largest lake in the world that drains naturally in two directions isWollaston Lake.
  • Lake Tobaon the island ofSumatrais in what is probably the largest resurgentcalderaon Earth.
  • The largest lake completely within the boundaries of a single city isLake Wanapiteiin the city ofSudbury,Ontario,Canada. Before the current city boundaries came into effect in 2001, this status was held byLake Ramsey,also in Sudbury.
  • Lake EnriquilloinDominican Republicis the only saltwater lake in the world inhabited bycrocodiles.
  • Lake Bernard,Ontario, Canada, claims to be the largest lake in the world with no islands.
  • Lake Saimaain bothSouth SavoniaandSouth Karelia,Finland, forms the much larger Saimaa basin, which have more shorelines per unit of area than anywhere else in the world, with the total length being nearly 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi).[82]
  • The largest lake in one country isLake Michigan,in the United States. However, it is sometimes considered part of Lake Michigan-Huron, making the record go toGreat Bear Lake,Northwest Territories,inCanada,the largest lake within one jurisdiction.
  • Thelargest lake on an island in a lake on an islandis Crater Lake on Vulcano Island inLake Taalon the island ofLuzon,ThePhilippines.
  • Thenorthernmost named lakeon Earth isUpper Dumbell Lakein theQikiqtaaluk RegionofNunavut,Canadaat a latitude of 82°28'N. It is 5.2 kilometres (3.2 mi) southwest ofAlert,the northernmost settlement in the world. There are also several small lakes north of Upper Dumbell Lake, but they are all unnamed and only appear on very detailed maps.
  • There are only 20ancient lakes- those over a million years old

Largest by continent

The largest lakes (surface area) bycontinentare:

See also

Notes

  1. ^TheCaspian Seais generally regarded by geographers, biologists andlimnologistsas a huge inlandsalt lake.However, the Caspian's large size means that for some purposes it is better modeled as a sea. Geologically, the Caspian,BlackandMediterraneanseas are remnants of the ancientTethys Ocean.Politically, the distinction between a sea and a lake may affect how the Caspian is treated by international law.[citation needed]

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