Wikipedia

Lake Superior

For other uses, seeLake Superior (disambiguation).

Lake Superioris thelargest freshwater lake in the world by surface area[a]and thethird-largest freshwater lake by volume,holding 10% of the world's surface fresh water.[12]Located in central North America, it is the northernmost and westernmost of theGreat Lakes of North America,straddling theCanada–United States borderwith the Canadian province ofOntarioto the north and east and the U.S. states ofMinnesotato the west andMichiganandWisconsinto the south.[13]It drains intoLake HuronviaSt. Marys River,then through the lower Great Lakes to theSt. Lawrence Riverand ultimately the Atlantic Ocean.

Lake Superior
Gichi-gami or Anishinaabewi-gichi-gami(Ojibwe)
Lake Superior taken from theInternational Space Stationon June 6, 2019
Location of Lake Superior in North America.
Location of Lake Superior in North America.
Lake Superior
Lake Superiorbathymetric map.[1][2][3]The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with "×".[4]The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated fromtunnel valleys.[5][6]
LocationNorth America
GroupGreat Lakes
Coordinates47°42′N87°30′W/ 47.7°N 87.5°W/47.7; -87.5(Lake Superior)
Lake typeGlacial
Primary inflowsNipigon,St. Louis,Pigeon,Pic,White,Michipicoten,Kaministiquia,Ontonagon,Tahquamenon Rivers
Primary outflowsSt. Marys River
Catchment area49,300 sq mi (128,000 km2)[7]
BasincountriesCanada and the United States
Max. length350 mi (560 km)[8]
Max. width160 mi (260 km)[8]
Surface area82,100 km2(31,700 sq mi)[7]
Average depth483 ft (147 m)[7]
Max. depth1,333 ft (406 m)[7][9]
Water volume12,070 km3(2,900 cu mi)[7]
Residence time191 years
Shore length11,729 mi (2,783 km) plus 997 mi (1,605 km) for islands[10]
Surface elevation601.71 ft (183 m) (2013 average)[11]
IslandsIsle Royale,Apostle Islands,Michipicoten Island,Grand Island,Slate Islands
Settlements
1Shore length isnot a well-defined measure.

Name

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False color view of Lake Superior as seen by the AVHRR instrument onboard MetOp-B. Made in a 221 composition, so colors are approximate. Received by an amateur station via the HRPT downlink with a 1m parabolic antenna.
Map ofGreat Lakes(Lake Superior in darker blue)

TheOjibwename for the lake isgichi-gami(insyllabics:ᑭᒋᑲᒥ,pronouncedgitchi-gamiorkitchi-gamiin different dialects),[14]meaning "great sea".Henry Wadsworth Longfellowwrote this name as "Gitche Gumee"in the poemThe Song of Hiawatha,as didGordon Lightfootin his song "The Wreck of theEdmund Fitzgerald".

According to other sources, the full Ojibwe name isᐅᒋᑉᐧᐁ ᑭᒋᑲᒥOjibwe Gichigami( "Ojibwe's Great Sea" ) orᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯ ᑭᒋᑲᒥAnishinaabe Gichigami( "Anishinaabe's Great Sea ").[15]The 1878 dictionary byFather Frederic Baraga,the first one written for the Ojibway language, gives the Ojibwe name asOtchipwe-kitchi-gami(a transliteration ofOjibwe Gichigami).[14]

In the 17th century, the first French explorers approached the great inland sea by way of theOttawa Riverand Lake Huron; they referred to their discovery asle lac supérieur(the upper lake, i.e., above Lake Huron). Some 17th-centuryJesuitmissionaries referred to it asLac Tracy(forAlexandre de Prouville de Tracy).[16]After taking control of the region from the French in the 1760s following their defeat in theFrench and Indian War,the Britishanglicizedthe lake's name toSuperior,"on account of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent".[17]

Hydrography

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Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and theSoo Locks(Sault Ste. Marie locks). Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world by area and the third largest in volume, behindLake BaikalinSiberiaandLake TanganyikainEast Africa.TheCaspian Sea,while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, isbrackish.

Lake Superior deepest point[4]on the bathymetric map.[1]

Lake Superior has a surface area of 31,700 square miles (82,103 km2),[7]which is approximately the size ofSouth CarolinaorAustria.It has a maximum length of 350statute miles(560km;300nmi) and maximum breadth of 160 statute miles (257 km; 139 nmi).[8]Its average depth is 80.5fathoms(483 ft; 147 m) with a maximum depth of 222.17 fathoms (1,333 ft; 406 m).[7][8][9]Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km3) of water.[7]There is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entireland massofNorthandSouth Americato a depth of 30 centimetres (12 in).[b]The shoreline of the lake stretches 2,726 miles (4,387 km) (including islands).[7]The lake boasts a very small ratio (1.55) of catchment area to surface area, which indicates minimal terrestrial influence.[18]

AmericanlimnologistJ. Val Klumpwas the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1 foot (733 ft or 223 m) below sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of theUnited Statesand the third-lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent afterGreat Slave Lakein theNorthwest Territoriesof Canada (1,503 ft or 458 m below sea level) andIliamna LakeinAlaska942 ft or 287 m. (ThoughCrater Lakeis the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is 4,229 feet (1,289 m)abovesea level.)

While the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below 110 fathoms (660 ft; 200 m) is an almost constant 39 °F (4 °C). This variation in temperature makes the lake seasonallystratified.Twice per year, however, thewater columnreaches a uniform temperature of 39 °F (4 °C) from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix. This feature makes the lakedimictic.Because of its volume, Lake Superior has aretention timeof 191 years.[19][20]

Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over 20 feet (6 m).[21]Waves well over 30 feet (9 m) have been recorded.[22]

Tributaries

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Lake Superior basin

Lake Superior is fed by more than 200 rivers, including theNipigon River,theSt. Louis River,thePigeon River,thePic River,theWhite River,theMichipicoten River,theBois Brule Riverand theKaministiquia River.The lake's outlet at St. Marys River has a relatively steepgradientwith rapids. The Soo Locks enable ships to bypass the rapids and to overcome the 25-foot (8 m) height difference between Lakes Superior and Huron.

Water levels

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A frozen Duluth Harbor entrance

The lake's average surface elevation is 600 feet (183 m)[8][19]above sea level.Until approximately 1887, the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined the outflow from Lake Superior. By 1921, development in support of transportation and hydroelectric power resulted in gates, locks, power canals and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids. The regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation plan known as Plan 1977-A. Water levels, including diversions of water from theHudson Baywatershed, are regulated by theInternational Lake Superior Board of Control,which was established in 1914 by theInternational Joint Commission.

Lake Superior's water level was at a new record low in September 2007, slightly less than the previous record low in 1926.[23]Water levels recovered within a few days.[24]

Historic high water The lake's water level fluctuates from month to month, with the highest lake levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is 1.17 feet (0.36 m) above the datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the summer of 1985, Lake Superior reached its highest recorded level at 2.33 feet (0.71 m) above the datum.[25]2019 and 2020 set new high-water records in nearly every month.[25]

Historic low water The lake's lowest levels occur in March and April. The normal low-water mark is 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below the datum. In the winter of 1926 Lake Superior reached its lowest recorded level at 1.58 feet (0.48 m) below the datum.[25]Additionally, the entire first half of the year (January to June) included record low months. The low water was a continuation of the dropping lake levels from the previous year, 1925, which set low-water records for October through December. During the nine-month period of October 1925 to June 1926, water levels ranged from 1.58 feet (0.48 m) to 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below Chart Datum.[25]In the summer of 2007 monthly historic lows were set; August at 0.66 feet (0.20 m), and September at 0.58 feet (0.18 m).[25]

Climate change

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According to a study by professors at theUniversity of Minnesota Duluth,Lake Superior may have warmed faster than its surrounding area.[26]Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to have increased by about 4.5 °F (2.5 °C) between 1979 and 2007, compared with an approximately 2.7 °F (1.5 °C) increase in the surrounding average air temperature. The increase in the lake's surface temperature may be related to the decreasing ice cover. Less winter ice cover allows moresolar radiationto penetrate and warm the water. If trends continue, Lake Superior, which freezes over completely once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040[27]although more current data through 2021 does not support this trend.[28]

Warmer temperatures could lead to more snow in thelake effectsnow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in theUpper Peninsula of Michigan.Two recent consecutive winters (2013–2014 and 2014–2015) brought high ice coverage to the Great Lakes, and on March 6, 2014, overall ice coverage peaked at 92.5%, the second-highest in recorded history.[29]Lake Superior's ice coverage further beat 2014's record in 2019, reaching 95% coverage.[30]

Geography

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Lake Superior,byWalter Shirlaw

The largest island in Lake Superior isIsle Royalein Michigan. Isle Royale contains several lakes, some of which also contain islands. Other well-known islands includeMadeline Islandin Wisconsin,Michipicoten Islandin Ontario, and Grand Island (the location of theGrand Island National Recreation Area) in Michigan.

The larger cities on Lake Superior include the twin ports ofDuluth, Minnesota,andSuperior, Wisconsin;Thunder Bay,Ontario;Marquette, Michigan;and the twin cities ofSault Ste. Marie, Michigan,andSault Ste. Marie, Ontario.Duluth-Superior,at the western end of Lake Superior, is the most inland point on theSaint Lawrence Seawayand the most inland port in the world.

Among the scenic places on the lake areApostle Islands National Lakeshore,Brockway Mountain Driveon theKeweenaw Peninsula,Isle Royale National Park,Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park,Pukaskwa National Park,Lake Superior Provincial Park,Grand Island National Recreation Area,Sleeping Giant (Ontario)andPictured Rocks National Lakeshore.TheGreat Lakes Circle Touris a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[31]

Climate

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Lake Superior's size reduces the severity of the seasons of itshumid continental climate(more typically seen in locations likeNova Scotia).[32]The water surface's slow reaction to temperature changes, seasonally ranging between 32 and 55 °F (0–13 °C) around 1970,[33]helps to moderate surrounding air temperatures in the summer (cooler with frequentsea breezeformations) and winter, and createslake-effect snowin colder months. The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall.

Geology

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Most of Lake Superior lies within the basin of theMidcontinent Rift.

The rocks of Lake Superior's northern shore date back to the early history of the earth. During thePrecambrian(between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago)magmaforcing its way to the surface created the intrusivegranitesof theCanadian Shield.[34]These ancient granites can be seen on theNorth Shoretoday. It was during thePenokean orogeny,part of the process that created theGreat Lakes tectonic zone,that many valuable metals were deposited. The region surrounding the lake has proved to be rich in minerals, withcopper,iron,silver,goldandnickelthe most frequently mined. Notable production includes gold from theHemlomine nearMarathon,copper from theKeweenaw Peninsulaand theMamainse Point Formation,iron from theGogebic Range,silver atSilver Islet,anduraniumat Theano Point.

The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers ofsedimentsthat compacted and becamelimestone,dolomite,taconiteand theshaleatKakabeka Falls.The continental crust was laterriven,creating one of the deepest rifts in the world.[35]The lake lies in this long-extinctMesoproterozoicrift valley,theMidcontinent Rift.Magma was injected between layers ofsedimentary rock,formingdiabasesills.This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock below, forming the flat-topped mesas in theThunder Bayarea.Amethystformed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift, and there are several amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area.[36]

Basaltic columnsalong Lake Superior

Lavaerupted from the rift and formed the blackbasaltrock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay Peninsula, andSt. Ignace Island.[citation needed]

In the most recent geological history, during theWisconsin glaciation10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of 1.25 miles (2 km). The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of theice sheet.The retreat left gravel, sand, clay and boulder deposits. Glacial meltwaters gathered in the Superior basin creatingLake Minong,a precursor to Lake Superior.[37]Without the immense weight of the ice, the landrebounded,and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste. Marie, becoming today's St. Mary's River.

History

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Historical map of Lake Superior and Northern Michigan, published 1879 by Rand McNally

The first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers in theLast Glacial Period.They are known as thePlano,and they used stone-tipped spears to huntcaribouon the northwestern side of Lake Minong. The ShieldArchaicpeoples arrived around 5000 BC; evidence of this culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore. They used bows and arrows, paddled dugout canoes, fished, hunted,mined copperfor tools and weapons, and established trading networks. They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe andCree.[38]The people of theLaurel complex(c. 500 BC to AD 500) developedseine netfishing, evidence being found at rivers around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten. The people of the TerminalWoodland periodwere evident in the area from AD 900 to 1650. They wereAlgonquian peopleswho hunted, fished and gathered berries. They usedsnowshoes,birch barkcanoes and conical or domed lodges. At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of encampments have been discovered. Most of thePukaskwa Pitswere likely made during this time.[38]

PictographsatLake Superior Provincial Park,Ontario

TheAnishinaabepeople (an ethnic grouping including theOjibwe/Chippewa) have inhabited the Lake Superior region for over five hundred years and were preceded by theDakota,Meskwaki (Fox),Menominee,Nipigon,NoquetandGros Ventres.After the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe made themselves middle-men between the Frenchfur tradersand other Native peoples. They soon became the dominant Native American nation in the region: they forced out theSiouxand Fox and won a victory against theIroquoiswest of Sault Ste. Marie in 1662. By the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores.[39]

Reconstructed Great Hall,Grand Portage National Monument,Minnesota

In the 18th century, as the booming fur trade supplied Europe withbeaver hats,theHudson's Bay Companyhad a virtual monopoly in the region until 1783, when the rivalNorth West Companywas formed. The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior atGrand Portage,Fort William,Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste. Marie. But by 1821, with competition harming the profits of both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company name. Many towns around the lake are current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or shipping. Today, tourism is another significant industry: the sparsely populated Lake Superior country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts vacationers and adventurers.

Shipping

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"Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873", stereoscopic photo

Lake Superior has been an important link in theGreat Lakes Waterway,providing a route for the transportation ofiron oreas well as grain and other mined and manufactured materials. Large cargo vessels calledlake freighters,as well as smaller ocean-goingfreighters,transport these commodities across Lake Superior. Shipping was slow to arrive at Lake Superior in the 19th century. The first steamboat to run on the lake was theIndependencein 1847, whereas the first steamers on the other Great Lakes began sailing in 1816.[40][41]Ice closes the lake shipping from mid-January to late March. Exact dates for the shipping season vary each year,[42]depending on weather conditions that form and break the ice.

Shipwrecks

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See also:Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes,List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale,Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve,andList of shipwrecks of western Lake Superior

The southern shore of Lake Superior betweenGrand Marais, Michigan,andWhitefish Pointis known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes";more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.[43]These shipwrecks are now protected by theWhitefish Point Underwater Preserve.Storms that claimed multiple ships include theMataafa Stormin November 1905 and theGreat Lakes Storm of 1913.

Wreckage ofSSCyprus—a 420-foot (130 m) ore carrier that sank on October 11, 1907, during a Lake Superior storm in 77 fathoms (460 ft or 140 m) of water—was located in August 2007. Built inLorain, Ohio,Cypruswas launched August 17, 1907, and was lost on her second voyage hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, toBuffalo, New York,with the sole survivor among her 23 crew being Charles G. Pitz.[44]In 1918 the last warships to sink in the Great Lakes,French minesweepersInkermanandCerisoles,vanished in a Lake Superior storm, perhaps upon striking the uncharted danger of theSuperior Shoalin an otherwise deep part of the lake. With 78 crewmembers dead, their sinking marked the largest loss of life on Lake Superior to date.

SSEdmund Fitzgeraldis the last ship that sank in Lake Superior, 15nautical miles(28 km; 17 mi) from Whitefish Point in a storm on November 10, 1975. The wreck was immortalized byGordon Lightfootin his ballad"The Wreck of theEdmund Fitzgerald".All 29 crew members died, and no bodies were recovered.Edmund Fitzgeraldwas battered so intensely by Lake Superior that the 729-foot (222 m) ship split in half; her two pieces lie approximately 170 feet (52 m) apart at a depth of 88 fathoms (530 ft or 160 m).

Lightfoot sings that "Superior, they said, never gives up her dead".[45]This is because of the unusually cold water, under 36 °F (2 °C) on average around 1970.[33]Normally, bacteria decaying a sunken body will bloat it with gas, causing it to float to the surface after a few days. But Lake Superior's water is cold enough year-round to inhibitbacterial growth,and bodies tend to sink and never resurface.[46]Joe MacInnisreported that in July 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the wreck ofEdmund Fitzgeralddiscovered a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not far from the open door, "fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the sediment".[47]

In February 2024 it was announced that wreckage from theArlingtonwas discovered from a sinking in 1940.[48]

Ecology

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Bedrock shoreline,Neys Provincial Park,Ontario
Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore,Michigan

More than 80 species of fish have been found in Lake Superior. Species native to the lake includebanded killifish,bloater,brook trout,burbot,cisco,lake sturgeon,lake trout,lake whitefish,longnose sucker,muskellunge,northern pike,pumpkinseed,rock bass,round whitefish,smallmouth bass,walleye,white suckerandyellow perch.In addition, many fish species have been either intentionally or accidentally introduced to Lake Superior:Atlantic salmon,brown trout,carp,chinook salmon,coho salmon,freshwater drum,pink salmon,rainbow smelt,rainbow trout,round goby,ruffe,sea lampreyandwhite perch.[49][50]

Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its water volume than the other Great Lakes and so is less productive in terms of fish populations and is anoligotrophic lake.This is a result of the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed.[19]It is also a reflection of relatively small human population and small amount of agriculture in its watershed. However,nitrateconcentrations in the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century. They are still much lower than levels considered dangerous to human health; but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of environmental nitrogen buildup. It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regionalnitrogen cycle,but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology.[51]

As for other Great Lakes fish, populations have also been affected by the accidental or intentional introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey andEurasian ruffe.Accidental introductions have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes. Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations.[13]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^TheCaspian Seais the largest lake, but is saline, not freshwater.
  2. ^North America(2.47×107km2) andSouth America(1.78×107km2) combined cover 4.26×107km2.Lake Superior's volume (1.20×104km3) over 4.26×107km2gives a depth of 0.282 m.

References

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  1. ^abNational Geophysical Data Center (1999)."Bathymetry of Lake Superior".National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.RetrievedMarch 23,2015.
    (the general reference to NGDC because this lake was never published, compilation of Great Lakes Bathymetry at NGDC has been suspended).
  2. ^National Geophysical Data Center (1999)."Bathymetry of Lake Huron".National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.doi:10.7289/V5G15XS5.RetrievedMarch 23,2015.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)(only small portion of this map)
  3. ^Hastings, D. & Dunbar, P.K. (1999)."Global Land One-Kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1".National Geophysical Data Center.doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS.RetrievedMarch 16,2015.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  4. ^abGreat Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory."About Our Great Lakes: Tour".National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived fromthe originalon May 7, 2017.RetrievedDecember 15,2017.
  5. ^Wright, H. E. Jr. (1973). Black, Robert Foster; Goldthwait, Richard Parker; Willman, Harold (eds.)."Tunnel Valleys, Glacial Surges, and Subglacial Hydrology of the Superior Lobe, Minnesota".Geological Society of America Memoirs.Geological Society of America Memoirs. Vol. 136. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America. pp. 251–276.doi:10.1130/MEM136-p251.ISBN0813711363.RetrievedApril 1,2015.
  6. ^Regis, Robert S.; Jennings-Patterson, Carrie; Wattrus, Nigel & Rausch, Deborah (March 24–25, 2003).Relationship of Deep Troughs in the Eastern Lake Superior Basin and Large-Scale Glaciofluvial Landforms in the Central Upper Peninsula of Michigan.North-Central Section 37th Annual Meeting.Kansas City, Missouri: The Geological Society of America. Paper No. 19-10. Archived fromthe originalon March 4, 2016.RetrievedApril 1,2015.
  7. ^abcdefghi"Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts".United States Environmental Protection Agency. May 25, 2011. Archived fromthe originalon October 29, 2010.RetrievedNovember 9,2011.
  8. ^abcde"Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1".United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 11, 2011.RetrievedNovember 10,2011.
  9. ^abWright, John W., ed. (2006).The New York Times Almanac(2007 ed.). New York: Penguin Books. p.64.ISBN0-14-303820-6.
  10. ^"Shorelines of the Great Lakes".Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.Archived fromthe originalon April 5, 2015.
  11. ^"Great Lakes Water Levels"(PDF).United States Army Corps of Engineers. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on April 18, 2013.RetrievedJune 27,2013.The link also has daily elevations for the current month.
  12. ^Bencomo, Phil (October 6, 2015)."Just How Big is Lake Superior?".Lake Superior Magazine.RetrievedJuly 9,2021.
  13. ^abMinnesota Sea Grant."Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake".University of Minnesota. Archived fromthe originalon July 21, 2017.RetrievedAugust 9,2007.
  14. ^ab"Kitchi-Gami Almanac: The Name".LakeSuperior.com.January 1, 2006.
  15. ^Chisholm, Barbara & Gutsche, Andrea (1998).Under the Shadow of the Gods: A Guide to the History of the Canadian Shore of Lake Superior(1st ed.). Transcontinental Printing.
  16. ^"Great Lakes Atlas".Environment Canada and United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1995.
  17. ^Stewart, George R.(1945). "Names on the Land, A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States".Geographical Review.35(4): 83.Bibcode:1945GeoRv..35..659P.doi:10.2307/210804.JSTOR210804.
  18. ^Urban, N. R. (2005)."Carbon cycling in Lake Superior".Journal of Geophysical Research.110(C6): C06S90.Bibcode:2005JGRC..110.6S90U.doi:10.1029/2003JC002230.ISSN0148-0227.
  19. ^abcMinnesota Sea Grant."Lake Superior".University of Minnesota. Archived fromthe originalon February 20, 2007.RetrievedAugust 9,2007.
  20. ^Minnesota Sea Grant (October 15, 2014)."Lake Superior's Natural Processes".University of Minnesota. Archived fromthe originalon August 22, 2020.RetrievedNovember 17,2015.
  21. ^"The Fall Storm Season".National Weather Service.RetrievedSeptember 25,2007.
  22. ^Chisholm & Gutsche (1998),p. xiii.
  23. ^"Lake Superior Hits Record Lows".The Globe and Mail.Toronto. Associated Press. October 1, 2007. Archived fromthe originalon June 10, 2008.RetrievedOctober 6,2007.
  24. ^"Current Great Lakes Water Levels".Great Lakes Information Network. Archived fromthe originalon October 20, 2007.RetrievedOctober 23,2007.
  25. ^abcdeDetroit District (February 2021).Water Level Data.United States Army Corps of Engineers.
  26. ^Marshall, Jessica (May 30, 2007)."Global Warming Is Shrinking the Great Lakes".New Scientist.Archived fromthe originalon October 13, 2007.RetrievedSeptember 25,2007.
  27. ^"Lake Superior Warming Faster than Surrounding Climate".The Globe and Mail.Toronto. Associated Press. June 4, 2007. Archived fromthe originalon April 9, 2007.RetrievedSeptember 25,2007.
  28. ^"Statistics".coastwatch.glerl.noaa.gov.RetrievedJuly 29,2022.
  29. ^"Extensive Great Lakes Ice Coverage to Limit Severe Weather, Pose Challenges to Shipping Industry".Accuweather.com.Archived fromthe originalon January 1, 2016.RetrievedNovember 17,2015.
  30. ^Meyers, John (March 16, 2019)."After Achieving 95 Percent Coverage, Lake Superior's Ice Breaking Up".Pioneer Press.St. Paul, Minnesota. Forum News Service.RetrievedSeptember 4,2019.
  31. ^"Great Lakes Circle Tour".Great-Lakes.net.Archived fromthe originalon July 25, 2010.RetrievedNovember 17,2015.
  32. ^Phillips, David W. (1978)."Environmental Climatology of Lake Superior".Journal of Great Lakes Research.Vol. 4, no. 3–4. pp. 288–309.doi:10.1016/S0380-1330(78)72199-4.
  33. ^abDerecki, J. A. (July 1980)."NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL-29: Evaporation from Lake Superior"(PDF).Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory.p. 37. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on October 24, 2015.RetrievedSeptember 25,2007.
  34. ^Harris, Ann G. (1977).Geology of National Parks(2nd ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt. p. 200.
  35. ^Linder, Douglas O. (2006)."'Simply Superior: The World's Greatest Lake' Lake Superior Facts ".Law.umkc.edu.Archived fromthe originalon November 5, 2005.RetrievedNovember 17,2015.
  36. ^"Ontario Amethyst: Ontario's Mineral Emblem".Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. Archived fromthe originalon August 12, 2007.RetrievedAugust 4,2007.
  37. ^Chisholm & Gutsche (1998),p. xv.
  38. ^abChisholm & Gutsche (1998),p. xvi.
  39. ^Chisholm & Gutsche (1998),p. xvii.
  40. ^*Palmer, Richard F. (1988).First Steamboat on the Great Lakes(PDF).pp. 7–8.
  41. ^*Bowen, Dana Thomas (1953).Great Lakes Ships and Shipping(PDF).Minnesota Historical Society. p. 9. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on July 14, 2020.RetrievedOctober 28,2019.
  42. ^"Paul R. Treggurtha: Last Trip for theTregurthaThis Year ".Duluth Shipping News.January 12, 2015. Archived fromthe originalon May 20, 2020.RetrievedJanuary 21,2015.Another trip here was planned but has apparently been canceled, making this her last and 41st visit this season. Last year, without a late start due to ice, the Tregurtha was here 49 times.
  43. ^Stonehouse, Frederick (1998) [1985].Lake Superior's Shipwreck Coast.Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios. p. 267.ISBN0-932212-43-3.
  44. ^"Century-Old Shipwreck Discovered: Ore Carrier Went Down in Lake Superior on Its Second Voyage".NBC News. Associated Press. September 10, 2007.
  45. ^Kohl, Cris (1998).The 100 Best Great Lakes Shipwrecks.Vol. II. Seawolf Communications. p. 430.ISBN0-9681437-3-3.
  46. ^Chisholm & Gutsche (1998),p. xxxiv.
  47. ^MacInnis, Joseph(1998).Fitzgerald's Storm: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald.Berkeley, California: Thunder Bay Press. p. 101.ISBN1-882376-53-6.
  48. ^"Shipwreck hunters stunned by discovery at bottom of world's largest freshwater lake".Independent.co.uk.RetrievedFebruary 14,2024.
  49. ^Minnesota Sea Grant."Lake Superior Fish Species".University of Minnesota.RetrievedJune 3,2009.
  50. ^Minnesota 2009 fishing regulations.p. 23.[full citation needed]
  51. ^Sterner, Robert W.; Anagnostou, Eleni; Brovold, Sandra;Bullerjahn, George S.;Finlay, Jacques C.; Kumar, Sanjeev; McKay, R. Michael L.; Sherrell, Robert M. (2007)."Increasing Stoichiometric Imbalance in North America's Largest Lake: Nitrification in Lake Superior"(PDF).Geophysical Research Letters.Vol. 34, no. 10. pp. L10406.Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410406S.doi:10.1029/2006GL028861.

Further reading

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  • "America".The Daily Mining Gazette.Houghton, Michigan. June 8, 1928.
  • Burt, Williams A. & Hubbard, Bela (1846).Reports on the Mineral Region of Lake Superior.Buffalo: L. Danforth.
  • "Cumberland".Detroit Free Press.January 29, 1974.
  • Grady, Wayne (2007).The Great Lakes: The Natural History of a Changing Region.Greystone Books.
  • Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (2006)."Great Lakes Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models".National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived fromthe originalon August 8, 2010.
  • Holdon, Thom (July–August 1977). "Reef of the Three C's".The Nor'easter.Vol. 2, no. 4. Duluth, MN: Lake Superior Marine Museum.
  • ——— (May–August 1978). "Above and Below: Steamer America".The Nor'easter.Vol. 3, no. 3 & 4. Duluth, Minnesota: Lake Superior Marine Museum.
  • Hyde, Charles K.; Mahan, Ann & Mahan, John (1995).The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes.Detroit: Wayne State University Press.ISBN9780814325544.
  • Langston, Nancy (2017).Sustaining Lake Superior: An Extraordinary Lake in a Changing World.New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
  • LeMay, Konnie (July 30, 2018)."Rockin' the Rift, The Billion-Year-Old Split that Made Us".Lake Superior Magazine.
  • Oleszewski, Wes (1998).Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses.Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios.ISBN0-932212-98-0.
  • Penrod, John (1998).Lighthouses of Michigan.Berrien Center, Michigan: Penrod/Hiawatha.ISBN978-0-942618-78-5.
  • Penrose, Laurie & Penrose, Bill (1999).A Traveler's Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses.Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications.ISBN9780923756031.
  • Ralph, Julian (1890).Lake Superior along the south shore.New York: Press of American Bank Note Company.
  • Sims, P.K. & Carter, L.M.H., eds. (1996).Archean and Proterozoic Geology of the Lake Superior Region, U.S.A., 1993.Washington, DC: United States Geological Survey. Professional Paper 1556.
  • Splake, T. Kilgore (1984).Superior Land Lights.Battle Creek, Michigan: Angst Productions.
  • "S.S. George M. Cox Wrecked".The Daily Mining Gazette.Houghton, Michigan. May 28, 1933.
  • Stonehouse, Frederick (1974).Marquette Shipwrecks.Marquette, Michigan: Harboridge Press.
  • ——— (1977).Isle Royale Shipwrecks.Marquette, Michigan: Avery Color Studios.
  • United States Army Corps of Engineers (August 2007). "[Record Low Water Levels Expected on Lake Superior]".
  • Wagner, John L. (1998).Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective.East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner.ISBN9781880311011.
  • "Wreck of Sidewheel Steamer Cumberland".Detroit Free Press.January 29, 1974.
  • Wright, Larry & Wright, Patricia (2006).Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia.Erin: Boston Mills Press.ISBN1-55046-399-3.
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