Language revitalization

Language revitalization,also referred to aslanguage revivalorreversing language shift,is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one.Those involved can include linguists, cultural or community groups, or governments. Some argue for a distinction betweenlanguage revival(the resurrection of anextinct languagewith no existing native speakers) andlanguage revitalization(the rescue of a "dying" language). There has only been one successful instance of a complete language revival:that of the Hebrew language.

Languages targeted for language revitalization include those whose use and prominence isseverely limited.Sometimes various tactics of language revitalization can even be used to try to reviveextinct languages.Though the goals of language revitalization vary greatly from case to case, they typically involve attempting to expand the number of speakers and use of a language, or trying to maintain the current level of use to protect the language from extinction orlanguage death.

Reasons for revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language is dying, economic danger such as the exploitation of indigenous natural resources, political danger such as genocide, or cultural danger/assimilation.In recent timesalone, it is estimated that more than 2000 languages have already become extinct. The UN estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over the next hundred years most of these will become extinct.These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure".A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with the land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image.

Language revitalization is also closely tied to the linguistic field oflanguage documentation.In this field, linguists try to create a complete record of a language's grammar, vocabulary, and linguistic features. This practice can often lead to more concern for the revitalization of a specific language on study. Furthermore, the task of documentation is often taken on with the goal of revitalization in mind.

Degrees of language endangerment

Five point scale

One possible five-point scale is as follows:

• Healthy/strong: all generations use language in variety of settings
• Weakening/sick: spoken by older people; not fully used by younger generations
• Moribund/dying: only a few adult speakers remain; no longer used asnative languageby children
• Dead: no longer spoken as a native language
• Extinct: no longer spoken and has few or no written records

Another scale

Another scale for identifying degrees of language endangerment is used in a 2003 paper ( "Language Vitality and Endangerment" ) commissioned byUNESCOfrom an international group of linguists. The linguists, among other goals and priorities, create a scale with six degrees for language vitality and endangerment.They also propose nine factors or criteria (six of which use the six-degree scale) to "characterize a language’s overall sociolinguistic situation".The nine factors with their respective scales are:

1. Intergenerational language transmission
   • safe: all generations use the language
   • unsafe: some children use the language in all settings, all children use the language in some settings
   • definitively endangered: few children speak the language; predominantly spoken by the parental generation and older
   • severely endangered: spoken by older generations; not used by the parental generation and younger
   • critically endangered: few speakers remain and are mainly from the great grandparental generation
   • extinct: no living speakers
2. Absolute number of speakers
3. Proportion of speakers within the total population
   • safe: the language is spoken by approximately 100% of the population
   • unsafe: the language is spoken by nearly but visibly less than 100% of the population
   • definitively endangered: the language is spoken by a majority of the population
   • severely endangered: the language is spoken by less than 50% of the population
   • critically endangered: the language has very few speakers
   • extinct: no living speakers
4. Trends in existing language domains
   • universal use (safe): spoken in all domains; for all functions
   • multilingual parity (unsafe): multiple languages (2+) are spoken in most social domains; for most functions
   • dwindling domains (definitively endangered): mainly spoken in home domains and is in competition with the dominant language; for many functions
   • limited or formal domains (severely endangered): spoken in limited social domains; for several functions
   • highly limited domains (critically endangered): spoken in highly restricted domains; for minimal functions
   • extinct: no domains; no functions
5. Response to new domains and media
   • dynamic (safe): spoken in all new domains
   • robust/active (unsafe): spoken in most new domains
   • receptive (definitively endangered): spoken in many new domains
   • coping (severely endangered): spoken in some new domains
   • minimal (critically endangered): spoken in minimal new domains
   • inactive (extinct): spoken in no new domains
6. Materials for language education and literacy
   • safe: established orthography and extensive access to educational materials
   • unsafe: access to educational materials; children developing literacy; not used by administration
   • definitively endangered: access to educational materials exist at school; literacy in language is not promoted
   • severely endangered: literacy materials exist however are not present in school curriculum
   • critically endangered: orthography is known and some written materials exist
   • extinct: no orthography is known
7. Governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies (including official status and use)
   • equal support (safe): all languages are equally protected
   • differentiated support (unsafe): primarily protected for private domains
   • passive assimilation (definitively endangered): no explicit protective policy; language use dwindles in public domain
   • active assimilation (severely endangered): government discourages use of language; no governmental protection of language in any domain
   • forced assimilation (critically endangered): language is not recognized or protected; government recognized another official language
   • prohibition (extinct): use of language is banned
8. Community members' attitudes towards their own language
   • safe: language is revered, valued, and promoted by whole community
   • unsafe: language maintenance is supported by most of the community
   • definitively endangered: language maintenance is supported by much of the community; the rest are indifferent or support language loss
   • severely endangered: language maintenance is supported by some of the community; the rest are indifferent or support language loss
   • critically endangered: language maintenance is supported by only a few members of the community; the rest are indifferent or support language loss
   • extinct: complete apathy towards language maintenance; prefer dominant language
9. Amount and quality of documentation.
   • superlative (safe): extensive audio, video, media, and written documentation of the language
   • good (unsafe): audio, video, media, and written documentation all exist; a handful of each
   • fair (definitively endangered): some audio and video documentation exists; adequate written documentation
   • fragmentary (severely endangered): limited audio and video documentation exists at low quality; minimal written documentation
   • inadequate (critically endangered): only a handful of written documentation exists
   • undocumented (extinct): no documentation exists

Theory

One of the most important preliminary steps in language revitalization/recovering involves establishing the degree to which a particular language has been “dislocated”. This helps involved parties find the best way to assist or revive the language.

Steps in reversing language shift

There are many different theories or models that attempt to lay out a plan for language revitalization. One of these is provided by celebrated linguistJoshua Fishman. Fishman's model for reviving threatened (or sleeping) languages, or for making them sustainable,consists of an eight-stage process. Efforts should be concentrated on the earlier stages of restoration until they have been consolidated before proceeding to the later stages. The eight stages are:

1. Acquisition of the language by adults, who in effect act as language apprentices (recommended where most of the remaining speakers of the language are elderly and socially isolated from other speakers of the language).
2. Create a socially integrated population of active speakers (or users) of the language (at this stage it is usually best to concentrate mainly on the spoken language rather than the written language).
3. In localities where there are a reasonable number of people habitually using the language, encourage the informal use of the language among people of all age groups and within families and bolster its daily use through the establishment of local neighbourhood institutions in which the language is encouraged, protected and (in certain contexts at least) used exclusively.
4. In areas where oral competence in the language has been achieved in all age groups, encourage literacy in the language, but in a way that does not depend upon assistance from (or goodwill of) the state education system.
5. Where the state permits it, and where numbers warrant, encourage the use of the language in compulsory state education.
6. Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated, encourage the use of the language in the workplace.
7. Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated, encourage the use of the language in local government services and mass media.
8. Where the above stages have been achieved and consolidated, encourage use of the language in higher education, government, etc.

This model of language revival is intended to direct efforts to where they are most effective and to avoid wasting energy trying to achieve the later stages of recovery when the earlier stages have not been achieved. For instance, it is probably wasteful to campaign for the use of a language on television or in government services if hardly any families are in the habit of using the language.

Additionally, Tasaku Tsunoda describes a range of different techniques or methods that speakers can use to try to revitalize a language, including techniques to revive extinct languages and maintain weak ones. The techniques he lists are often limited to the current vitality of the language.

He claims that theimmersionmethod cannot be used to revitalize an extinct or moribund language. In contrast, the master-apprentice method of one-on-one transmission on language proficiency can be used with moribund languages. Several other methods of revitalization, including those that rely on technology such as recordings or media, can be used for languages in any state of viability.

A method's effectiveness depends on the language's viability.

Method	Degree of endangerment
	Weakening	Moribund	Dead/extinct
Immersion	effective	ineffective	ineffective
Neighborhood	effective	ineffective	ineffective
Bilingual	effective	ineffective	ineffective
Master-apprentice	effective	effective	ineffective
Total physical response	effective	effective	ineffective
Telephone	effective	effective	ineffective
Radio	effective	effective	effective
Multimedia	effective	effective	effective
Two-way	effective	effective	effective
Formulaic	effective	effective	effective
Artificialpidgin	effective	effective	effective
Place name	effective	effective	effective
Reclamation	effective	effective	effective
Adoption	effective	effective	effective

Factors in successful language revitalization

David Crystal,in his bookLanguage Death,proposes that language revitalization is more likely to be successful if its speakers

• increase thelanguage's prestigewithin the dominant community;
• increase their wealth and income;
• increase their legitimate power in the eyes of the dominant community;
• have a strong presence in the education system;
• can write down the language;
• can use electronic technology.

In her book,Endangered Languages: An Introduction,Sarah Thomasonnotes the success of revival efforts for modern Hebrew and the relative success of revitalizing Maori in New Zealand (seeSpecific Examplesbelow). One notable factor these two examples share is that the children were raised in fully immersive environments.In the case of Hebrew, it was on early collective-communities calledkibbutzim.For the Maori language In New Zealand, this was done through alanguage nest.

Revival linguistics

Ghil'ad Zuckermannproposes "Revival Linguistics" as a new linguistic discipline and paradigm.

Zuckermann's term 'Revival Linguistics' is modelled upon 'Contact Linguistics'. Revival linguistics inter alia explores the universal constraints and mechanisms involved in language reclamation, renewal and revitalization. It draws perspicacious comparative insights from one revival attempt to another, thus acting as an epistemological bridge between parallel discourses in various local attempts to revive sleeping tongues all over the globe.

According to Zuckermann, "revival linguistics combines scientific studies of native language acquisition and foreign language learning. After all, language reclamation is the most extreme case of second-language learning. Revival linguistics complements the established area ofdocumentary linguistics,which records endangered languages before they fall asleep. "

Zuckermann proposes that "revival linguistics changes the field of historical linguistics by, for instance, weakening the familytree model,which implies that a language has only one parent. "

There are disagreements in the field of language revitalization as to the degree that revival should concentrate on maintaining the traditional language, versus allowing simplification or widespread borrowing from themajority language.

Compromise

Zuckermann acknowledges the presence of "local peculiarities and idiosyncrasies"but suggests that

"there are linguistic constraints applicable to all revival attempts. Mastering them would help revivalists and first nations' leaders to work more efficiently. For example, it is easier to resurrect basic vocabulary and verbal conjugations than sounds and word order. Revivalists should be realistic and abandon discouraging, counter-productive slogans such as" Give us authenticity or give us death! "

Nancy Dorianhas pointed out that conservative attitudes towardloanwordsand grammatical changes often hamper efforts to revitalize endangered languages (as withTiwiin Australia), and that a division can exist between educated revitalizers, interested in historicity, and remaining speakers interested in locally authentic idiom (as has sometimes occurred withIrish). Some have argued that structural compromise may, in fact, enhance the prospects of survival, as may have been the case with English in the post-Norman period.

Traditionalist

Other linguists have argued that when language revitalization borrows heavily from the majority language, the result is a new language, perhaps acreoleorpidgin.For example, the existence of "Neo-Hawaiian" as a separate language from "Traditional Hawaiian" has been proposed, due to the heavy influence of English on every aspect of the revived Hawaiian language.This has also been proposed for Irish, with a sharp division between "Urban Irish" (spoken by second-language speakers) and traditional Irish (as spoken as a first language inGaeltachtareas). Ó Béarra stated: "[to] follow the syntax and idiomatic conventions of English, [would be] producing what amounts to little more than English in Irish drag."With regard to the then-moribundManx language,the scholar T. F. O'Rahilly stated, "When a language surrenders itself to foreign idiom, and when all its speakers become bilingual, the penalty is death."Neil McRae has stated that the uses ofScottish Gaelicare becoming increasingly tokenistic, and native Gaelic idiom is being lost in favor of artificial terms created by second-language speakers.

Specific examples

The total revival of adead language(in the sense of having nonative speakers) to become the shared means of communication of a self-sustaining community of several millionfirst languagespeakers has happened only once, in the case ofHebrew,resulting inModern Hebrew- now thenational languageofIsrael.In this case, there was a unique set of historical and cultural characteristics that facilitated the revival. (SeeRevival of the Hebrew language.) Hebrew, once largely aliturgical language,was re-established as a means of everyday communication by Jews, some of who had lived in what is now the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories, starting in the nineteenth century. It is the world's most famous and successful example of language revitalization.

In a related development,literary languageswithoutnative speakersenjoyed great prestige and practical utility aslingua francas,often counting millions of fluent speakers at a time. In many such cases, a decline in the use of the literary language, sometimes precipitous, was later accompanied by a strong renewal. This happened, for example, in the revival ofClassical Latinin theRenaissance,and the revival ofSanskritin the early centuries AD. An analogous phenomenon in contemporaryArabic-speaking areas is the expanded use of the literary language (Modern Standard Arabic,a form of theClassical Arabicof the 6th century AD). This is taught to all educated speakers and is used in radio broadcasts, formal discussions, etc.

In addition, literary languages have sometimes risen to the level of becomingfirst languagesof very large language communities. An example is standardItalian,which originated as a literary language based on the language of 13th-centuryFlorence,especially as used by such important Florentine writers asDante,PetrarchandBoccaccio.This language existed for several centuries primarily as a literary vehicle, with few native speakers; even as late as 1861, on the eve ofItalian unification,the language only counted about 500,000 speakers (many non-native), out of a total population ofc. 22,000,000.The subsequent success of the language has been through conscious development, where speakers of any of the numerousItalian languageswere taught standard Italian as asecond languageand subsequently imparted it to their children, who learned it as a first language.Of course this came at the expense of local Italian languages, most of which are nowendangered.Success was enjoyed in similar circumstances byHigh German,standard Czech,Castilian Spanishand other languages.

Africa

TheCoptic languagebegan its decline when Arabic became the predominant language in Egypt.Pope Shenouda IIIestablished the Coptic Language Institute in December 1976 in Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral inCairofor the purpose of reviving the Coptic language.

Americas

North America

In recent years, a growing number ofNative Americantribes have been trying to revitalize their languages.For example, there are apps (including phrases, word lists and dictionaries) in many Native languages includingCree,Cherokee,Chickasaw,Lakota,Ojibwe,Oneida,Massachusett,Navajo,Halq'emeylem,Gwych'in,andLushootseed.

Wampanoag,a language spoken by the people of the same name in Massachusetts, underwent a language revival project led byJessie Little Doe Baird,a trained linguist. Members of the tribe use the extensive written records that exist in their language, including a translation of the Bible and legal documents, in order to learn and teach Wampanoag. The project has seen children speaking the language fluently for the first time in over 100 years.In addition, there are currently attempts at reviving theChochenyo languageof California, which had become extinct.

Efforts are being made by the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community and others to keepChinook Jargon,also known asChinuk Wawa,alive. This is helped by the corpus of songs and stories collected fromVictoria Howardand published byMelville Jacobs.

The open-source platformFirstVoiceshosts community-managed websites for 85 language revitalization projects, covering multiple varieties of 33 Indigenous languages inBritish Columbiaas well as over a dozen languages from "elsewhere in Canada and around the globe", along with 17 dictionary apps.

Tlingit

Similar to other indigenous languages,Tlingitis critically endangered.Less than 100 fluent Elders existed as of 2017.From 2013 to 2014, the language activist, author, and teacher, Sʔímlaʔxw Michele K. Johnson from the Syilx Nation, attempted to teach two hopeful learners of Tlingit in the Yukon.Her methods included textbook creation, sequenced immersion curriculum, and film assessment.The aim was to assist in the creation of adult speakers that are of parent-age, so that they too can begin teaching the language. In 2020, X̱ʼuneiLance Twitchellled an Tlingit online class withOuter Coast College.Dozens of students participated.He is an associate professor of Alaska Native Languages in the School of Arts and Sciences at theUniversity of Alaska Southeastwhich offers a minor in Tlingit language and an emphasis on Alaska Native Languages and Studies within a Bachelorʼs degree in Liberal Arts.

South America

Kichwais the variety of theQuechualanguage spoken inEcuadorand is one of the most widely spoken indigenous languages in South America. Despite this fact, Kichwa is a threatened language, mainly because of the expansion of Spanish in South America. One community of original Kichwa speakers, Lagunas, was one of the first indigenous communities to switch to the Spanish language.According to King, this was because of the increase of trade and business with the large Spanish-speaking town nearby. The Lagunas people assert that it was not for cultural assimilation purposes, as they value their cultural identity highly.However, once this contact was made, language for the Lagunas people shifted through generations, to Kichwa and Spanish bilingualism and now is essentially Spanish monolingualism. The feelings of the Lagunas people present a dichotomy with language use, as most of the Lagunas members speak Spanish exclusively and only know a few words in Kichwa.

The prospects for Kichwa language revitalization are not promising, as parents depend on schooling for this purpose, which is not nearly as effective as continual language exposure in the home.Schooling in the Lagunas community, although having a conscious focus on teaching Kichwa, consists of mainly passive interaction, reading, and writing in Kichwa.In addition to grassroots efforts, national language revitalization organizations, likeCONAIE,focus attention on non-Spanish speaking indigenous children, who represent a large minority in the country. Another national initiative, Bilingual Intercultural Education Project (PEBI), was ineffective in language revitalization because instruction was given in Kichwa and Spanish was taught as a second language to children who were almost exclusively Spanish monolinguals. Although some techniques seem ineffective, Kendall A. King provides several suggestions:

1. Exposure to and acquisition of the language at a young age.
3. Extreme immersion techniques.
5. Multiple and diverse efforts to reach adults.
7. Flexibility and coordination in planning and implementation
9. Directly addressing different varieties of the language.
11. Planners stressing that language revitalization is a long process
13. Involving as many people as possible
15. Parents using the language with their children
17. Planners and advocates approaching the problem from all directions.

Specific suggestions include imparting an elevated perception of the language in schools, focusing on grassroots efforts both in school and the home, and maintaining national and regional attention.

Asia

Hebrew

Further information:Revival of the Hebrew language

Therevival of the Hebrew languageis the only successful example of a revived dead language.TheHebrew languagesurvived into the medieval period as the language ofJewish liturgyandrabbinic literature.With the rise ofZionismin the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, becoming primarily a spokenlingua francaamong the early Jewish immigrants toOttoman Palestineand received the official status in the 1922 constitution of theBritish Mandate for Palestineand subsequently of theState of Israel.

Sanskrit

Further information:Sanskrit revival

There have been recent attempts at revivingSanskritin India.However, despite these attempts, there are no first language speakers of Sanskrit in India.In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizenshave reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue. However, these reports are thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language, rather than being genuinely indicative of the presence of thousands of L1 Sanskrit speakers in India. There has also been a rise of so-called "Sanskrit villages",but experts have cast doubt on the extent to which Sanskrit is really spoken in such villages.

Soyot

Main article:Soyot-Tsaatan language

TheSoyot languageof the small-numberedSoyotsinBuryatia,Russia,one ofSiberian Turkic languages,has been reconstructed and a Soyot-Buryat-Russian dictionary has been published in 2002. The language is currently taught in some elementary schools.

Ainu

Main article:Ainu language

TheAinu languageof the indigenousAinu peopleof northern Japan is currently moribund, but efforts are underway to revive it. A 2006 survey of theHokkaidoAinu indicated that only 4.6% of Ainu surveyed were able to converse in or "speak a little" Ainu.As of 2001, Ainu was not taught in any elementary or secondary schools in Japan, but was offered at numerous language centres and universities in Hokkaido, as well as at Tokyo'sChiba University.

Manchu

Main article:Manchu language

In China, theManchu languageis one of the most endangered languages, with speakers only in three small areas of Manchuria remaining.Some enthusiasts are trying to revive the language oftheir ancestorsusing available dictionaries and textbooks, and even occasional visits toQapqal Xibe Autonomous CountyinXinjiang,where the relatedXibe languageis still spoken natively.

Spanish

Main articles:Spanish language in the PhilippinesandPhilippine Spanish

In the Philippines, a local variety of Spanish that was primarily based onMexican Spanishwas thelingua francaof the country since Spanish colonization in 1565 and was an official language alongsideFilipino(standardizedTagalog) andEnglishuntil 1987, following the ratification of a new constitution, where it was re-designated as a voluntary language. As a result of its loss as an official language and years of marginalization at the official level during and after American colonization, the use of Spanish amongst the overall populace decreased dramatically and became moribund, with the remaining native speakers left being mostly elderly people.The language has seen a gradual revival, however, due to official promotion under the administration of former PresidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo.Most notably, Resolution No. 2006-028 reinstated Spanish as a mandatory subject in secondary schools and universities.Results were immediate as the job demand for Spanish speakers had increased since 2008.As of 2010, theInstituto Cervantesin Manila reported the number of Spanish-speakers in the country with native or non-native knowledge at approximately 3 million, the figure albeit including those who speak the Spanish-based creoleChavacano.Complementing government efforts is a notable surge of exposure through themainstream mediaand, more recently,music-streamingservices.

Armenian

Main article:Armenian language

The Armenian language, specifically that of theWestern Armeniandialect, has been declared an endangered language byUNESCOas most speakers of the dialect remain in diasporic communities away from their homeland in Anatolia. In spite of this, there have been various effortsto revitalize the language, especially within theLos Angeles communitywhere the majority of Western Armenians reside.

Within her dissertation, Shushan Karapetian discusses at length the decline of the Armenian language in the United States, and new means for keeping and reviving Western Armenian, such as the creation of the Saroyan Committee or the Armenian Language Preservation Committee, launched in 2013.Other attempts at language revitalization can be seen within theUniversity of California in Irvine.

Other Asian

TheKodrah Kristangrevitalization initiative inSingaporeseeks to revive the critically endangeredKristangcreole.

In Thailand, there exists aChong languagerevitalization project, headed by Suwilai Premsrirat.

Europe

InEurope,in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the use of both local and learnedlanguagesdeclined as the central governments of the different states imposed their vernacular language as the standard throughout education and official use (this was the case in theUnited Kingdom,France,Spain,ItalyandGreece,and to some extent, inGermanyandAustria-Hungary).

In the last few [when?] decades, localnationalismandhuman rightsmovements have made a moremulticulturalpolicy standard in European states; sharp condemnation of the earlier practices of suppressing regional languages was expressed in the use of such terms as "linguicide".

Irish

Main article:Status of the Irish language

One of the best known European attempts at language revitalization concerns theIrish language.While English is dominant through most of Ireland, Irish, aCeltic language,is still spoken in certain areas calledGaeltachtaí,but there it is in serious decline.The challenges faced by the language over the last few centuries have included exclusion from important domains, social denigration, the death or emigration of many Irish speakers during theIrish famineof the 1840s, and continued emigration since. Efforts to revitalise Irish were being made, however, from the mid-1800s, and were associated with a desire for Irish political independence.Contemporary Irish language revitalization has chiefly involved teaching Irish as a compulsory language in mainstream English-speaking schools. But the failure to teach it in an effective and engaging way means (as linguist Andrew Carnie notes) that students do not acquire the fluency needed for the lasting viability of the language, and this leads to boredom and resentment. Carnie also noted a lack of media in Irish (2006),though this is no longer the case.

The decline of the Gaeltachtaí and the failure of state-directed revitalisation have been countered by an urban revival movement. This is largely based on an independent community-based school system, known generally asGaelscoileanna.These schools teach entirely through Irish and their number is growing, with over thirty such schools in Dublin alone.They are an important element in the creation of a network of urban Irish speakers (known as Gaeilgeoirí), who tend to be young, well-educated and middle-class. It is now likely that this group has acquired critical mass, a fact reflected in the expansion of Irish-language media.Irish language television has enjoyed particular success.It has been argued that they tend to be better educated than monolingual English speakers and enjoy higher social status.They represent the transition of Irish to a modern urban world, with an accompanying rise in prestige.

Scottish Gaelic

There are also current attempts to revive the related language ofScottish Gaelic,which was suppressed following the formation of the United Kingdom, and entered further decline due to theHighland clearances.Currently [when?], Gaelic is only spoken widely in theWestern Islesand some relatively small areas of theHighlands and Islands.The decline in fluent Gaelic speakers has slowed; however, the population center has shifted to L2 speakers in urban areas, especially Glasgow.

Manx

Main article:Manx language revival

Another Celtic language,Manx,lost its last native speaker in 1974 and was declared extinct byUNESCOin 2009, but never completely fell from use.The language is now taught in primary and secondary schools, including as a teaching medium at theBunscoill Ghaelgagh,used in some public events and spoken as a second language by approximately 1800 people.Revitalization efforts include radio shows in Manx Gaelic and social media and online resources. The Manx government has also been involved in the effort by creating organizations such as the Manx Heritage Foundation (Culture Vannin) and the position of Manx Language Officer.The government has released an official Manx Language Strategy for 2017–2021.

Cornish

There have been a number of attempts to revive theCornish language,both privately and some under theCornish Language Partnership.Some of the activities have included translation of the Christian scriptures,a guild of bards,and the promotion ofCornish literaturein modern Cornish, including novels and poetry.

Breton

Main article:Breton language § Revival efforts

Caló

TheRomaniarriving in the Iberian Peninsula developed an IberianRomanidialect. As time passed, Romani ceased to be a full language and becameCaló,acantmixing Iberian Romance grammar and Romani vocabulary. With sedentarization and obligatory instruction in the official languages, Caló is used less and less. As Iberian Romani proper is extinct and as Caló is endangered, some people are trying to revitalise the language. The Spanish politicianJuan de Dios Ramírez HerediapromotesRomanò-Kalò,a variant ofInternational Romani,enriched by Caló words.His goal is to reunify the Caló and Romani roots.

Livonian

Main article:Livonian language revival

The Livonian language, a Finnic language, once spoken on about a third of modern-day Latvian territory,died in the 21st century with the death of the last native speakerGrizelda Kristiņaon 2 June 2013.Today there are about 210 people mainly living in Latvia who identify themselves as Livonian and speak the language on the A1-A2 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and between 20 and 40 people who speak the language on level B1 and up.Today all speakers learn Livonian as a second language. There are different programs educating Latvians on the cultural and linguistic heritage of Livonians and the fact that most Latvians have common Livonian descent.

Programs worth mentioning include:

• Livones.netwith extensive information about language, history and culture
• The Livonian Institute of the University of Latviadoing research on the Livonian language, other Finnic languages in Latvia and providing an extensive Livonian-Latvian-Estonian dictionary with declinations/conjugations
• Virtual Livoniaproviding information on the Livonian language and especially its grammar
• Mierlinkizt:An annual summer camp for children to teach children about the Livonian language, culture etc.
• Līvõd Īt (Livonian Union)

The Livonian linguistic and cultural heritage is included in the Latvian cultural canonand the protection, revitalization and development of Livonian as an indigenous language is guaranteed by Latvian law

Old Prussian

A few linguists and philologists are involved inrevivinga reconstructed form of the extinctOld Prussian languagefrom Luther's catechisms, the Elbing Vocabulary, place names, and Prussian loanwords in theLow Prussian dialectofLow German.Several dozen people use the language inLithuania,Kaliningrad,andPoland,including a few children who are natively bilingual.

The Prusaspirā Society has published their translation ofAntoine de Saint-Exupéry'sThe Little Prince.The book was translated by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and released in 2015.The other efforts of Baltic Prussian societies include the development of online dictionaries, learning apps and games. There also have been several attempts to produce music with lyrics written in the revived Baltic Prussian language, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast byRomowe Rikoito,Kellan and Āustras Laīwan, but also in Lithuania byKūlgrindain their 2005 albumPrūsų Giesmės(Prussian Hymns),and inLatviaby Rasa Ensemble in 1988andValdis Muktupāvelsin his 2005oratorio"Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian.

Important in this revival wasVytautas Mažiulis,who died on 11 April 2009, and his pupil Letas Palmaitis, leader of the experiment and author of the websitePrussian Reconstructions.Two late contributors were Prāncis Arellis (Pranciškus Erelis), Lithuania, and Dailūns Russinis (Dailonis Rusiņš), Latvia. After them, Twankstas Glabbis fromKaliningrad oblastand Nērtiks Pamedīns from East-Prussia, now PolishWarmia-Mazuriaactively joined.

Yola

TheYola languagerevival movement has cultivated in Wexford in recent years, and the “Gabble Ing Yola” resource center for Yola materials claims there are around 140 speakers of the Yola language today.

Oceania

Australia

The European colonization of Australia, and the consequent damage sustained byAboriginalcommunities, had a catastrophic effect on indigenous languages, especially in the southeast and south of the country, leaving some with no living traditional native speakers. A number of Aboriginal communities inVictoriaand elsewhere are now trying to revive some ofthese languages.The work is typically directed by a group ofAboriginal eldersand other knowledgeable people, with community language workers doing most of the research and teaching. They analyze the data, develop spelling systems and vocabulary and prepare resources. Decisions are made in collaboration. Some communities employ linguists, and there are also linguists who have worked independently,such asLuise HercusandPeter K. Austin.

• In the state ofQueensland,an effort is being made to teach some Indigenous languages in schools and to develop workshops for adults. More than 150 languages were once spoken within the state, but today fewer than 20 are spoken as a first language, and less than two per cent of schools teach any Indigenous language. TheGunggari languageis one language which is being revived, with only three native speakers left.
• In theNorthern Territory,the Pertame Project is an example inCentral Australia.Pertame,from the country south ofAlice Springs,along theFinke River,is a dialect in theArrernte group of languages.With only 20 fluent speakers left by 2018,the Pertame Project is seeking to retain and revive the language, headed by Pertame elder Christobel Swan.
• In the far north ofSouth Australia,theDiyari languagehas an active programme under way, with materials available for teaching in schools and the wider community.Also in South Australia, there is a unit at theUniversity of Adelaidewhich teaches and promotes the use of theKaurna language,headed byRob Amery,who has produced many books and course materials.
• TheVictorianDepartment of Education and Training reported 1,867 student enrollments in 14 schools offering an Aboriginal Languages Program in the state ofVictoriain 2018.

New Zealand

Further information:Māori language revival

One of the best cases of relative success in language revitalization is the case ofMaori,also known aste reo Māori.It is the ancestral tongue of the indigenous Maori people of New Zealand and a vehicle for prose narrative, sung poetry, and genealogical recital.The history of the Maori people is taught in Maori in sacred learning houses through oral transmission. Even after Maori became a written language, the oral tradition was preserved.

Once European colonization began, many laws were enacted in order to promote the use of English over Maori among indigenous people.The Education Ordinance Act of 1847 mandated school instruction in English and established boarding schools to speed up assimilation of Maori youths into European culture. The Native School Act of 1858 forbade Māori from being spoken in schools.

During the 1970s, a group of young Maori people, theNgā Tamatoa,successfully campaigned for Maori to be taught in schools.Also, Kōhanga Reo, Māori language preschools, called language nests, were established.The emphasis was on teaching children the language at a young age, a very effective strategy for language learning. The Maori Language Commission was formed in 1987, leading to a number of national reforms aimed at revitalizing Maori.They include media programmes broadcast in Maori, undergraduate college programmes taught in Maori, and an annual Maori language week. Eachiwi(tribe) created a language planning programme catering to its specific circumstances. These efforts have resulted in a steady increase in children being taught in Maori in schools since 1996.

Hawaiian

Main article:Hawaiian language

On six of the seven inhabited islands ofHawaii,Hawaiian was displaced by English and is no longer used as the daily language of communication. The one exception isNiʻihau,whereHawaiianhas never been displaced, has never been endangered, and is still used almost exclusively. Efforts to revive the language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiianlanguage immersionschools are now open to children whose families want to retain (or introduce) Hawaiian language into the next generation. The localNational Public Radiostation features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day". Additionally, the Sunday editions of theHonolulu Star-Bulletinand its successor, theHonolulu Star-Advertiser,feature a brief article calledKauakūkalahale,written entirely in Hawaiian by a student.

Current revitalization efforts

Language revitalization efforts are ongoing around the world. Revitalization teams are utilizing modern technologies to increase contact with indigenous languages and to recordtraditional knowledge.

Mexico

In Mexico, theMixtecpeople's language heavily revolves around the interaction between climate, nature, and what it means for their livelihood.UNESCO's LINKS (Local and Indigenous Knowledge) program recently underwent a project to create a glossary of Mixtec terms and phrases related to climate. UNESCO believes that the traditional knowledge of the Mixtec people via their deep connection with weather phenomena can provide insight on ways toaddress climate change.Their intention in creating the glossary is to "facilitate discussions between experts and the holders of traditional knowledge".

Canada

In Canada, theWapikoni Mobileproject travels to indigenous communities and provides lessons in film making. Program leaders travel across Canada with mobile audiovisual production units, and aims to provide indigenous youth with a way to connect with their culture through a film topic of their choosing. The Wapikona project submits its films to events around the world as an attempt to spread knowledge of indigenous culture and language.

Chile

Of the youth in Rapa Nui (Easter Island), ten percent learn their mother language. The rest of the community has adopted Spanish in order to communicate with the outside world and support its tourism industry. Through a collaboration between UNESCO and the ChileanCorporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indigena,the Department of Rapa Nui Language and Culture at the Lorenzo Baeza Vega School was created. Since 1990, the department has created primary education texts in theRapa Nui language.In 2017, the Nid Rapa Nui, anon-governmental organizationwas also created with the goal of establishing a school that teaches courses entirely in Rapa Nui.

Singapore

An initiative known asKodrah Kristanghas been created to revitalize the critically endangeredKristang language.It includes an audio course onSoundcloud,known asKontah Kristangand a vocabulary course onMemrise,known asKriseh Kristang.The success of the Memrise project has "inspired the start of similar projects among speakers of other Indigenous languages," likeUnangam Qilinĝinginto teach theAleut languagespoken inAlaska.

Health benefits of language revitalization

Language revitalisation has been linked to increased health outcomes for Indigenous communities involved in reclaiming traditional language. Benefits range from improved mental health for community members, increasing connectedness to culture, identity, and a sense of wholeness. Indigenous languages are a core element in the formation of identity, providing pathways for cultural expression, agency, spiritual and ancestral connection.Connection to culture is considered to play an important role in childhood development,and is a UN convention right.

As colonisation and subsequent linguicide was carried out through policies such as those that created Australia'sStolen Generationshave damaged this connection. It has been proposed that language revitalization may play an important role in counteringintergenerational traumathat has been caused.Researchers at theUniversity of AdelaideandSouth Australian Health and Medical Research Institutehave found that language revitalisation ofAboriginal languagesis linked to better mental health.One study in theBarngarlaCommunity inSouth Australiahas been looking holistically at the positive benefits of language reclamation, healing mental and emotional scars, and building connections to community and country that underpin wellness and wholeness. The study identified the Barngarla peoples connection to theirlanguageas a strong component of developing a strong cultural and personal identity; the people are as connected to language as they are to culture, and culture is key to their identity.Some proponents claim that language reclamation is a form of empowerment and builds strong connections with community and wholeness.

Criticism

John McWhorterhas argued that programs to reviveindigenous languageswill almost never be very effective because of the practical difficulties involved. He also argues that the death of a language does not necessarily mean the death of a culture. Indigenous expression is still possible even when the original language has disappeared, as with Native American groups and as evidenced by the vitality ofblack American culturein the United States, among people who speak notYorubabut English. He argues that language death is, ironically, a sign of hitherto isolated peoples migrating and sharing space: "To maintain distinct languages across generations happens only amidst unusually tenacious self-isolation—such as that of theAmish—or brutal segregation ".

Kenan Malikhas also argued that it is "irrational" to try to preserve all the world's languages, as language death is natural and in many cases inevitable, even with intervention. He proposes that language death improves communication by ensuring more people speak the same language. This may benefit the economy and reduce conflict.

The protection ofminority languagesfrom extinction is often not a concern for speakers of the dominant language. There is often prejudice and deliberate persecution of minority languages, in order to appropriate the cultural and economic capital of minority groups.At other times governments deem that the cost of revitalization programs and creating linguistically diverse materials is too great to take on.

See also

• Category:Language activists
• Contemporary Latin
• Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation
• Endangered languages
• Language documentation
• Language nest
• Language planning
• Language policy
• Linguistic purism
• Minority language
• Regional language
• Rosetta Project
• Sacred language
• Second-language acquisition
• Treasure language
• Languages in censuses

Digital projects and repositories

• Lingua Libre− alibreonline tool used to record words and phrases of any language (thousands of recordings have already been done in endangered languages likeAtikamekw,Occitan,Basque,Catalan,and are all available onWikimedia Commons)
• Tatoebacontains example sentences with translations in dozens of endangered languages, includingBelarusian,Breton,BasqueandCornish.
• TheLiving Archive of Aboriginal Languages− contains works in endangered languages of theNorthern Territory,Australia
• FirstVoices- contains community-managed dictionaries, songs, stories, and multimedia for Indigenous languages inBritish Columbia

Organizations

• Foundation for Endangered Languages
• The Language Conservancy
• Pūnana Leo,Hawaiian language schools
• Resource Network for Linguistic Diversity
• Culture Vannin,Manx Gaelic language organization
• SIL International
• First Peoples' Cultural Council,Indigenous language, arts, and heritage revitalization in British Columbia

Lists

• Lists of endangered languages
• List of endangered languages with mobile apps
• Lists of extinct languages
• List of language regulators
• List of revived languages

Further reading

• Grenoble, L. A. and Whaley, L. J. (1998).Endangered Languages: Language Loss and Community Response.Cambridge University Press. (ISBN0-521-59712-9)
• Nettle, D. and Romaine, S. (2000).Vanishing Voices.Oxford University Press. (ISBN0-19-515246-8)
• Reyhner, J. (ed.) (1999).Revitalizing indigenous languages.Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University, Center for Excellence in Education. (ISBN0-9670554-0-7)
• Bastardas-Boada, A. (2019).From language shift to language revitalization and sustainability. A complexity approach to linguistic ecology.Barcelona: Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona. (ISBN978-84-9168-316-2)
• James Griffiths (2021).Speak Not: Empire, Identity and the Politics of Language.Bloomsbury. (ISBN9781786999665)

External links

Organizations

• First Languages Australia
• Enduring Voices Project,National Geographic
• Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages
• Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Project
• Google Endangered Languages Project
• Fourth International 3L Summer School
• Resource Network for Linguistic Diversity
• World Oral Literature Project, Voices of Vanishing Worlds

Canada

• "RPM YouTube Playlist –" Revitalization "".RPM.fm.Retrieved8 August2012.

United States

• Documenting Endangered Languages,Documenting Endangered Languages (DEL) (Archived program)National Science Foundation
• Society to Advance Indigenous Vernaculars of the United States,(Savius.org)
• Programs Concerned with Alaska Native Language (ANL) Revitalization
• "The Young Ancestors, Camino Verite Films".Archived fromthe originalon 20 April 2018.Retrieved8 August2012.
• Stephens, Patia (2006)."Language 911: UM helps rescue fading indigenous voices".Vision, Research, Scholarship & Innovation, The University of Montana.Retrieved8 August2012.

California

• Advocates for Indigenous California Language Survival
• Indigenous Language Institute
• Live Your Language Alliance (LYLA)"It is the desire of the Live Your Language Alliance to hear and speak the traditional languages of theTolowa,Karuk,Yurok,Hupa,Tsnungwe,Wiyot,Mattole,andWailaki."
• Agha, Marisa (18 March 2012)."Language preservation helps American Indian students stick with college"(PDF).The Sacramento Bee.Retrieved8 August2012.

Technologies

• Recording your elder/Native speaker,practical vocal recording tips for non-professionals
• Learning indigenous languages on Nintendo
• Texting endangered languages
• First Nations endangered languages chat applications
• DOBES Documentation of Endangered Languages

Techniques

• Kawaiisu Language and Cultural Center training^[usurped]
• Pointers on How to Learn Your Language(scroll to link on page)
• Do-it-yourself grammar and reading in your language,Breath of Life 2010 presentations
• Language Hunters
• Where Are Your Keys
• Lost Words - The Documentary,covers Dr. Stephen Greymorning's Accelerated Second Language Learning