Wikipedia

Laurus nobilis

"Laurels" redirects here. For other uses, seeLaurels (disambiguation).

Laurus nobilis/ˈlɔːrəsˈnɒbɪlɪs/[2][3]is an aromaticevergreentree or largeshrubwith green,glabrous(smooth) leaves. It is in theflowering plantfamilyLauraceae.It is native to theMediterranean regionand is used asbay leaffor seasoning in cooking. Its common names includebay tree(esp. United Kingdom),[4]: 84 bay laurel,sweet bay,true laurel,Grecian laurel,[5]or simplylaurel.Laurus nobilisfigures prominently in classicalGreco-Romanculture.

Laurus nobilis
Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) leaves and branches
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Laurales
Family: Lauraceae
Genus: Laurus
Species:
L. nobilis
Binomial name
Laurus nobilis
Distribution map

Worldwide, many other kinds of plants in diverse families are also called "bay" or "laurel", generally due to similarity of foliage or aroma toLaurus nobilis.

Description

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A laurel shrub
Laurus nobilisin pot
Laurus nobilisin bloom

The laurel is anevergreenshrub or smalltree,variable in size and sometimes reaching 7–18 m (23–59 ft) tall.[4]The genusLaurusincludes three accepted species,[6]whose diagnostic key characters often overlap.[7]

The bay laurel isdioecious(unisexual), with male and femaleflowerson separate plants.[8]Each flower is pale yellow-green, about1 cm (3⁄8in) diameter, and they are borne in pairs beside a leaf. The leaves are glabrous, 6–12 cm (2–5 in) long and2–4 cm (3⁄4–1+5⁄8in) broad, with anentire(untoothed) margin. On some leaves the margin undulates.[8]Thefruitis a small, shiny black drupe-like berry[9][10]about1 cm (3⁄8in) long[8]that contains one seed.[11][4]

Ecology

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Further information:Laurel forest

Laurus nobilisis a widespreadrelictof thelaurel foreststhat originally covered much of theMediterranean Basinwhen the climate of the region was more humid. With the drying of the Mediterranean during thePlioceneera, the laurel forests gradually retreated, and were replaced by the more drought-tolerantsclerophyllplant communities familiar today. Most of the last remaining laurel forests around the Mediterranean are believed to have disappeared approximately ten thousand years ago, although some remnants still persist in the mountains of southernTurkey,northernSyria,southernSpain,north-centralPortugal,northernMorocco,theCanary Islandsand inMadeira.

Human uses

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Food

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The plant is the source of several popularherbsand onespiceused in a wide variety of recipes, particularly among Mediterranean cuisines.[8]Most commonly, the aromaticleavesare added whole to Italianpastasauces. They are typically removed from dishes before serving, although they may also be used as a simplegarnish.[12]Whole bay leaves have a longshelf lifeof about one year, under normal temperature and humidity.[12]Whole bay leaves are used almost exclusively as flavor agents during the food preparation stage.

Ground bay leaves, however, can be ingested safely and are often used insoupsandstocks,as well as being a common addition to aBloody Mary.[12]Dried laurel berries and pressed leaf oil can both be used as robust spices, and the wood can be burnt for strongsmoke flavoring.[12]

Ornamental

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Laurus nobilisis widely cultivated as anornamental plantin regions withMediterraneanoroceanic climates,and as a house plant or greenhouse plant in colder regions. It is used intopiaryto create single erect stems with ball-shaped, box-shaped or twisted crowns; also for low hedges. However, it is slow-growing and may take several years to reach the desired height.[13]Together with a gold form,L. nobilis'Aurea'[14]and a willow-leaved formL. nobilisf.angustifolia,[15]it has gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit.[16]

One of the most important pests affecting ornamental laurels is caused by thejumping plant louseTrioza alacris,which induces the curling and thickening of the edge of the leaves for the development of the insect'snymphs,eventually creating a necrosedgall.[17]The species is also affected by thescale insectCoccus hesperidum.[17]

Alternative medicine

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Laurus nobilisessential oil in clear glass vial

Inherbal medicine,aqueousextractsof bay laurel have been used as anastringentand salve for open wounds.[18]It is also used inmassage therapyandaromatherapy.[19]Afolk remedyfor rashes caused bypoison ivy,poison oak,andstinging nettleis apoulticesoaked in boiled bay leaves.[20]The Roman naturalistPliny the Elderlisted a variety of conditions which laurel oil was supposed to treat: paralysis, spasms,sciatica,bruises, headaches,catarrhs,ear infections, and rheumatism.[21]

Symbolism

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Greece

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InGreek,the plant is calledδάφνηdáphnē,after the mythic mountain nymphof the same name.In the myth ofApollo and Daphne,the godApollofell in love with Daphne, a priestess ofGaia(Mother Earth), and when he tried to seduce her she pleaded for help to Gaia, who transported her toCrete.In Daphne's place Gaia left a laurel tree, from which Apollo fashionedwreathsto console himself.[22]

Other versions of the myth, including that of the Roman poetOvid,state that Daphne was transformed directly into a laurel tree.[23]

Bay laurel was used to fashion thelaurel wreathofancient Greece,a symbol of highest status. A wreath of bay laurels was given as the prize at thePythian Gamesbecause the games were in honor of Apollo, and the laurel was one of his symbols. According to the poetLucian,the priestess of Apollo known as thePythiareputedly chewed laurel leaves from a sacred tree growing inside the temple to induce theenthusiasmos(trance) from which she uttered the oracular prophecies for which she was famous.[24]Some accounts starting in the fourth century BC describe her as shaking alaurel branchwhile delivering her prophecies. Those who received promising omens from the Pythia were crowned with laurel wreaths as a symbol of Apollo's favor.[25]

Rome

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Petrarch,laurated poet, father ofhumanism

The symbolism carried over toRoman culture,which held the laurel as a symbol of victory.[26]It was also associated with immortality,[27]with ritual purification, prosperity and health.[28][29]It is also the source of the wordsbaccalaureateandpoet laureate,as well as the expressions "assume the laurel" and "resting on one's laurels".

Pliny the Elderstated that the laurel was not permitted for "profane" uses – lighting it on fire at altars "for the propitiation of divinities" was strictly forbidden, because "it is very evident that the laurel protests against such usage by crackling as it does in the fire, thus, in a manner, giving expression to its abhorrence of such treatment".[30]

Laurel was closely associated with the Roman Emperors, beginning withAugustus.Two Laurel trees flanked the entrance to Augustus' house on thePalatine Hillin Rome, which itself was connected to theTemple of Apollo Palatinus,which Augustus had built. Thus, the laurels had the dual purpose of advertising Augustus' victory in the Civil Wars and his close association with Apollo.[28]Suetoniusrelates the story of Augustus' wife, and Rome's first Empress,Livia,who planted a sprig of laurel on the grounds of hervillaatPrima Portaafter an eagle dropped a hen with the sprig clutched in its beak onto her lap.[31]The sprig grew into a full-size tree which fostered an entire grove of laurel trees, which were in turn added to by subsequent Emperors when they celebrated atriumph.The emperors in theJulio-Claudiandynasty all sourced theirLaurel wreathsfrom the original tree planted by Livia. It was taken as an omen of the impending end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty that in the reign ofNerothe entire grove died, shortly before he was assassinated.[31]Rome's second EmperorTiberiuswore wreaths of laurel whenever there was stormy weather because it was widely believed that Laurel trees were immune to lightning strikes, affording protection to those who brandished it.[32][33][29]One reason for this belief is because laurel crackles loudly when on fire. It led ancient Romans to believe the plant was inhabited by a "heavenly firedemon",and was therefore" immune "from outer threats like fire or lightning.[32]

In modern Italy, laurel wreaths are worn as a crown by graduating school students.[34]

East Asia

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An early Chineseetiological mythfor thephases of the mooninvolved a great forest or tree which quickly grew and lost its leaves and flowers every month. After theSuiandTangdynasties,this was sometimes connected to a woodsman namedWu Gang,sentenced to cut at a self-repairing tree as a punishment for varying offenses. The tree was originally identified as aQuế(guì) and described in the terms of theosmanthus(Osmanthus fragrans,now known in Chinese as theQuế hoaor "guiflower "), whose blossoms are still used to flavorwineand confections for theMid-Autumn Festival.However, in English, it is often associated with the more well-knowncassia(Cinnamomum cassia,now known in Chinese as theNhục quếor "meatgui") while, in modern Chinese, it has instead become associated with the Mediterranean laurel. By theQing dynasty,thechengyu"pluck osmanthus in theToadPalace "(Thiềm cung chiết quế,Chángōng zhé guì) meant passing theimperial examinations,[35][36][37]which were held around the time of the lunar festival. The similar association in Europe of laurels with victory and success led to its translation into Chinese as theNguyệt quếor "Moongui".

Finland

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The laurel leaves in the right side of the coat of arms ofKaskinen

The laurel leaves in the coat of arms ofKaskinen,Finland(Swedish:Kaskö) may have been meant to refer to local flowering, but its origin may also be in the name of the family Bladh (Swedish:blad;'leaf'); two members of the family – a father and a son – acquired bothtown rightsand the status of staple town for the village at the time.[38][39]

Chemical constituents

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The most abundant component found in laurelessential oilis1,8-cineole,also called eucalyptol. The leaves contain about 1.3% essential oils (ol. lauri folii), consisting of 45%eucalyptol,12% otherterpenes,8–12%terpinyl acetate,3–4%sesquiterpenes,3%methyleugenol,and other α- and β-pinenes,phellandrene,linalool,geraniol,andterpineol.[40]It containslauric acidalso.[citation needed]

Both essential and fatty oils are present in the fruit. The fruit is pressed and water-extracted to obtain these products. The fruit contains up to 30% fatty oils and about 1% essential oils (terpenes, sesquiterpenes,alcohols,andketones). This laurel oil is the characteristic ingredient ofAleppo soap.The chemical compoundlauroside Bhas been isolated fromLaurus nobilis.[41]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Khela, S.; Wilson, B. (2018)."Laurus nobilis".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2018:e.T203351A119996864.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T203351A119996864.en.Retrieved19 November2021.
  2. ^"Laurus".Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.
  3. ^"Botanary: nobilis".Dave's Garden.RetrievedDecember 19,2022.
  4. ^abcStace, C. A.(2010).New Flora of the British Isles(Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521707725.
  5. ^Brown, R.W. (1956).Composition of scientific words: A manual of methods and a lexicon of materials for the practice of logotechnics.Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
  6. ^"LaurusL. "Plants of the World Online.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Retrieved11 February2024.
  7. ^Mabberley,The Plant-Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants, Cambridge University Press, 19 Jun 1997
  8. ^abcdVaughan, John Griffith;Geissler, Catherine (2009).The New Oxford Book of Food Plants.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 150.ISBN978-0-19-954946-7.Retrieved2010-12-31.
  9. ^"Laurus nobilis - Plant Finder".www.missouribotanicalgarden.org.Retrieved2023-08-23.
  10. ^Flora Europaea.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1964. pp. Volume 1 page 246.
  11. ^Konstantinidou, E.; Takos, I.; Merou, T. (2008). "Desiccation and storage behavior of bay laurel (Laurus nobilisL.) seeds ".European Journal of Forest Research.127(2): 125–131.Bibcode:2008EJFR..127..125K.doi:10.1007/s10342-007-0189-z.S2CID28898196.
  12. ^abcdGreen, Aliza (2006).Field Guide to Herbs & Spices.Philadelphia: Quirk Books.ISBN978-1-59474-082-4.Retrieved2010-12-31.
  13. ^Brickell, Christopher, ed. (2008).The Royal Horticultural Society A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants.United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 614.ISBN9781405332965.
  14. ^"Laurus nobilis 'Aurea'".RHS.Retrieved1 October2020.
  15. ^"RHS Plantfinder –Laurus nobilisf.angustifolia".Retrieved19 March2018.
  16. ^"Laurus nobilis".RHS.Retrieved1 October2020.
  17. ^abDe Alfonso, M.; Olmeda1, A.; Rodrigo, E.; Xamaní, P.; Sánchez–Domingo, A.; Laborda, R. (2014)."Evaluación de diferentes métodos de control de plagas en cultivo de laurel ornamental e impacto en la fauna útil asociada"(PDF).VI Jornadas Ibéricas de Horticultura Ornamental: Las buenas prácticas agrícolas en horticultura ornamental.pp. 50–51.ISBN978-84-617-3020-9.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  18. ^Nayak, S; Nalabothu, P; Sandiford, S; Bhogadi, V; Adogwa, A (2006)."Evaluation of wound healing activity of Allamanda cathartica. L. and Laurus nobilis. L. extracts on rats".BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine.6:12.doi:10.1186/1472-6882-6-12.PMC1456996.PMID16597335..
  19. ^Encyclopedia of Herbs."Bay Laurel: Laurus nobilis".AllNatural.net.Archivedfrom the original on 19 November 2010.Retrieved2010-12-31.
  20. ^Wood, Jamie; Steinke, Lisa (2010).The Faerie's Guide to Green Magick from the Garden.New York: Random House. p. 43.ISBN978-1-58761-354-8.Retrieved2010-12-31.
  21. ^Pliny the Elder.Natural History.p. XXIII.43.
  22. ^Graves, Robert (1955).The Greek Myths: Part 1.Penguin Books. pp. 21.K–21.L.
  23. ^"The Metamorphoses".Translated by Kline, A. S. 2000. Archived from the original on April 19, 2005.Retrieved2017-11-17.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  24. ^Scott, Michael (2014).Delphi.Princeton University Press. p. 20.
  25. ^Swahn, J. O. (1991).The Lore of Spices.Random House. p. 40.
  26. ^De Cleene, Marcel; Lejeune, Marie Claire (2003).Compendium of symbolic and ritual plants in Europe.Vol. 1. Man & Culture. p. 129.OCLC482791069.
  27. ^Pliny the Elder.Natural History Book XV.39.
  28. ^abGiesecke, Annette (2014).The Mythology of Plants: Botanical Lore from Ancient Greece and Rome.J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 35–36.
  29. ^abPliny the Elder.Natural History.Book XV, 35.
  30. ^Pliny the Elder.Natural History.Book XV.135.
  31. ^abSuetonius.Galba.Book 7, 1.
  32. ^abMcCartney, Eugene S. (1929). "Why Did Tiberius Wear Laurel in the Form of a Crown During Thunder Storms".Classical Philology.24(2): 201–203.doi:10.1086/361124.S2CID162098134.
  33. ^Suetonius.Tiberius, 69.
  34. ^Gabriella Massara,https://giftsitter.com/it/blog/laurea-perche-si-incorona-il-laureato-con-lalloro "Corona d’alloro fai da te",retrieved April 2018
  35. ^Brendon, Juliet et al.The Moon Year: A Record of Chinese Customs and Festivals,p. 410.Kelly & Walsh, 1927. Reprinted Routledge (Abingdon), 2011. Accessed 13 November 2013.
  36. ^Zdic (2013)."Thiềm cung chiết quế".Accessed 13 November 2013.(in Chinese)
  37. ^Đỗ cận phương[Du Jinfang] (2003).《 hồng lâu mộng hán anh tập ngữ từ điển 》[ "A Dictionary of Chinese Idioms in theDream of the Red Chamber"]. Accessed 13 November 2013.(in English and Chinese)
  38. ^Suomen kunnallisvaakunat(in Finnish). Suomen Kunnallisliitto. 1982. p. 117.ISBN951-773-085-3.
  39. ^Boyko, Dm. A. (2013).Геральдика Великого Княжества Финляндского[Heraldry of the Grand Duchy of Finland]. Zaporizhzhia.(in Russian)
  40. ^Kilic, Ayben; Hafizoglu, Harzemsah; Kollmannsberger, Hubert; Nitz, Siegfried (2004). "Volatile Constituents and Key Odorants in Leaves, Buds, Flowers, and Fruits ofLaurusnobilisL ".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.52(6): 1601–6.doi:10.1021/jf0306237.PMID15030218.
  41. ^Panza, E; Tersigni, M; Iorizzi, M; Zollo, F; De Marino, S; Festa, C; Napolitano, M; Castello, G; et al. (2011). "Lauroside B, a megastigmane glycoside from Laurus nobilis (bay laurel) leaves, induces apoptosis in human melanoma cell lines by inhibiting NF-κB activation".Journal of Natural Products.74(2): 228–33.doi:10.1021/np100688g.PMID21188975.
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