Wikipedia

Linux

This is thelatest accepted revision,reviewedon2 October 2024.
This article is about the family of operating systems. For the kernel, seeLinux kernel.For other uses, seeLinux (disambiguation).

Linux(/ˈlɪnʊks/,LIN-uuks)[11]is a generic name for a family ofopen-sourceUnix-likeoperating systemsbased on theLinux kernel,[12]anoperating system kernelfirst released on September 17, 1991, byLinus Torvalds.[13][14][15]Linux is typicallypackagedas aLinux distribution(distro), which includes the kernel and supportingsystem softwareandlibraries,many of which are provided by theGNU Project.

Linux
Tux the penguin
Tuxthe penguin, the mascot of Linux[1]
DeveloperCommunity contributors,
Linus Torvalds
Written inC,assembly languages,Rustand others
OS familyUnix-like
Working stateCurrent
Source modelOpen source
Initial releaseSeptember 17, 1991;33 years ago(1991-09-17)
Repositorygit.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/
Marketing targetCloud computing,embedded devices,mainframe computers,mobile devices,personal computers,servers,supercomputers
Available inMultilingual
PlatformsAlpha,ARC,ARM,C-Sky,Hexagon,LoongArch,m68k,Microblaze,MIPS,Nios II,OpenRISC,PA-RISC,PowerPC,RISC-V,s390,SuperH,SPARC,x86,Xtensa
KerneltypeMonolithic
UserlandGNU,[a]BusyBox[b]
Default
user interface
LicenseGPLv2[9][c]
Official websitekernel.org
Articles in the series
Linux kernel
Linux distribution

Popular Linux distributions[16][17][18]includeDebian,Fedora Linux,Arch Linux,andUbuntu.Commercial distributions includeRed Hat Enterprise LinuxandSUSE Linux Enterprise.Desktop Linux distributions include awindowing systemsuch asX11orWaylandand adesktop environmentsuch asGNOME,KDE PlasmaorXfce.Distributions intended forserversmay not have agraphical user interfaceat all or include asolution stacksuch asLAMP.Many Linux distributions use the word "Linux" in their name, but theFree Software Foundationuses and recommends the name "GNU/Linux"to emphasize the use and importance ofGNUsoftware in many distributions,causing some controversy.[19][20]Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any purpose.[21]

Linux was originally developed forpersonal computersbased on theIntel x86architecture, but has since beenportedto moreplatformsthan any other operating system.[22]Because of the dominance of Linux-basedAndroidonsmartphones,Linux, including Android, has thelargest installed baseof allgeneral-purpose operating systemsas of May 2022.[23][24][25]Linux is, as of March 2024,used by around 4 percent ofdesktop computers.[26]TheChromebook,which runs the Linux kernel-basedChromeOS,dominates the USK–12education market and represents nearly 20 percent of sub-$300notebooksales in the US.[27]Linux is the leading operating system on servers (over 96.4% of the top one million web servers' operating systems are Linux),[28]leads otherbig ironsystems such asmainframe computers,and is used on all of theworld's 500 fastest supercomputers[d](as of November 2017,having gradually displaced all competitors).[29][30][31]

Linux also runs onembedded systems,i.e., devices whose operating system is typically built into thefirmwareand is highly tailored to the system. This includesrouters,automationcontrols,smart home devices,video game consoles,[32]televisions(Samsung and LGsmart TVs),[33][34][35]automobiles(Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai, and Toyota),[36]andspacecraft(Falcon 9rocket,Dragoncrew capsule, and thePerseverancerover).[37][38]

Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-sourcesoftwarecollaboration. Thesource codemay be used, modified, and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as theGNU General Public License(GPL). The Linux kernel, for example, is licensed under the GPLv2, with an exception forsystem callsthat allows code that calls the kernel via system calls not to be licensed under the GPL.[39][40][21]

History

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Main article:History of Linux

Precursors

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Linus Torvalds,principal author of the Linux kernel

TheUnixoperating system was conceived and implemented in 1969, atAT&T'sBell Labs,in the United States byKen Thompson,Dennis Ritchie,Douglas McIlroy,andJoe Ossanna.[41]First released in 1971, Unix was written entirely inassembly language,as was common practice at the time. In 1973, in a key pioneering approach, it was rewritten in theCprogramming language by Dennis Ritchie (except for some hardware and I/O routines). The availability of ahigh-level languageimplementation of Unix made itsportingto different computer platforms easier.[42]

Due to an earlierantitrust case[specify]forbidding it[specify]from entering the computer business, AT&T licensed the operating system'ssource codeas atrade secretto anyone who asked.[clarification needed]As a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted byacademic institutionsand businesses. In 1984,AT&T divested itselfof itsregional operating companies,and was released from its obligation not to enter the computer business; freed of that obligation, Bell Labs began selling Unix as aproprietaryproduct, where users were not legally allowed to modify it.[43][44]

Onyx Systemsbegan selling early microcomputer-based Unix workstations in 1980. Later,Sun Microsystems,founded as a spin-off of a student project atStanford University,also began selling Unix-based desktop workstations in 1982. While Sun workstations did not use commodity PC hardware, for which Linux was later originally developed, it represented the first successful commercial attempt at distributing a primarily single-user microcomputer that ran a Unix operating system.[45][46]

With Unix increasingly "locked in" as a proprietary product, theGNU Project,started in 1983 byRichard Stallman,had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely offree software.Work began in 1984.[47]Later, in 1985, Stallman started theFree Software Foundationand wrote theGNU General Public License(GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries,compilers,text editors,acommand-line shell,and awindowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such asdevice drivers,daemons,and thekernel,calledGNU Hurd,were stalled and incomplete.[48]

Minixwas created byAndrew S. Tanenbaum,acomputer scienceprofessor, and released in 1987 as a minimal Unix-like operating system targeted at students and others who wanted to learn operating system principles. Although the complete source code of Minix was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from beingfree softwareuntil the licensing changed in April 2000.[49]

Although not released until 1992, due tolegal complications,the development of386BSD,from whichNetBSD,OpenBSDandFreeBSDdescended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has stated on separate occasions that if theGNU kernelor 386BSD had been available at the time (1991), he probably would not have created Linux.[50][51]

Creation

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While attending theUniversity of Helsinkiin the fall of 1990, Torvalds enrolled in a Unix course.[52]The course used aMicroVAXminicomputer runningUltrix,and one of the required texts wasOperating Systems: Design and ImplementationbyAndrew S. Tanenbaum.This textbook included a copy of Tanenbaum'sMinixoperating system. It was with this course that Torvalds first became exposed to Unix. In 1991, he became curious about operating systems.[53]Frustrated by the licensing of Minix, which at the time limited it to educational use only,[49]he began to work on his operating system kernel, which eventually became the Linux kernel.

On July 3, 1991, to implement Unixsystem calls,Linus Torvalds attempted unsuccessfully to obtain a digital copy of thePOSIXstandardsdocumentationwith a request to thecomp.os.minixnewsgroup.[54]After not finding the POSIX documentation, Torvalds initially resorted to determining system calls fromSunOSdocumentation owned by the university for use in operating itsSun Microsystemsserver. He also learned some system calls from Tanenbaum's Minix text.

Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on Minix and applications written for Minix were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems.[55]GNU applications also replaced all Minix components, because it was advantageous to use the freely available code from the GNU Project with the fledgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be reused in other computer programs as long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[56]Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, creating a fully functional and free operating system.[57]

Naming

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5.25-inchfloppy disksholding a very early version of Linux

Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention "Freax",aportmanteauof "free", "freak", and "x" (as an allusion to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, some of the project'smakefilesincluded the name "Freax" for about half a year. Initially, Torvalds considered the name "Linux" but dismissed it as too egotistical.[58]

To facilitate development, the files were uploaded to theFTP server(ftp.funet.fi) ofFUNETin September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds' coworker at theHelsinki University of Technology(HUT) who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax" was a good name, so he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.[58]Later, however, Torvalds consented to "Linux".

According to anewsgrouppost by Torvalds,[11]the word "Linux" should be pronounced (/ˈlɪnʊks/ⓘLIN-uuks) with a short 'i' as in 'print' and 'u' as in 'blunt'. To further demonstrate how the word "Linux" should be pronounced, he included an audio guide with the kernel source code.[59]However, in this recording, he pronounces Linux as/ˈlinʊks/(LEEN-uuks) with a short butclose front unrounded vowel,instead of anear-close near-front unrounded vowelas in his newsgroup post.

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Main article:Linux adoption
Ubuntu,a popular Linux distribution
Nexus 5XrunningAndroid

The adoption of Linux in production environments, rather than being used only by hobbyists, started to take off first in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community, where organizations such asNASAstarted to replace their increasingly expensive machines withclustersof inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial use began whenDellandIBM,followed byHewlett-Packard,started offering Linux support to escapeMicrosoft's monopoly in the desktop operating system market.[60]

Today, Linux systems are used throughout computing, fromembedded systemsto virtually allsupercomputers,[31][61]and have secured a place in server installations such as the popularLAMPapplication stack. The use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[62][63][64][65][66][67][68]Linux distributions have also become popular in thenetbookmarket, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their ownChromeOSdesigned for netbooks.

Linux's greatest success in the consumer market is perhaps the mobile device market, with Android being the dominant operating system onsmartphonesand very popular ontabletsand, more recently, onwearables.Linux gamingis also on the rise withValveshowing its support for Linux and rolling outSteamOS,its own gaming-oriented Linux distribution, which was later implemented in theirSteam Deckplatform. Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal government ofBrazil.[69]

Current development[when?]

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In-flight entertainmentsystem booting up displaying the Linux mascot, Tux.

Linus Torvalds is the lead maintainer for the Linux kernel and guides its development, whileGreg Kroah-Hartmanis the lead maintainer for the stable branch.[70]Zoë Kooymanis the executive director of the Free Software Foundation,[71]which in turn supports the GNU components.[72]Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.

Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additionalpackage managementsoftware in the form of Linux distributions.

Design

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See also:Linux kernel § Architecture and features

Many developers ofopen-sourcesoftware agree that the Linux kernel was not designed but ratherevolvedthroughnatural selection.Torvalds considers that although the design of Unix served as a scaffolding, "Linux grew with a lot of mutations – and because the mutations were less than random, they were faster and more directed thanalpha-particles in DNA."[73]Eric S. Raymondconsiders Linux's revolutionary aspects to be social, not technical: before Linux, complex software was designed carefully by small groups, but "Linux evolved in a completely different way. From nearly the beginning, it was rather casually hacked on by huge numbers of volunteers coordinating only through the Internet. Quality was maintained not by rigid standards or autocracy but by the naively simple strategy of releasing every week and getting feedback from hundreds of users within days, creating a sort of rapid Darwinian selection on the mutations introduced by developers."[74]Bryan Cantrill,an engineer of a competing OS, agrees that "Linux wasn't designed, it evolved", but considers this to be a limitation, proposing that some features, especially those related to security,[75]cannot be evolved into, "this is not a biological system at the end of the day, it's a software system."[76]

A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses amonolithic kernel,the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, access to theperipherals,andfile systems.Device driversare either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules that are loaded while the system is running.[77]

The GNUuserlandis a key part of most systems based on the Linux kernel, with Android being the notable exception. TheGNU C library,an implementation of theC standard library,works as a wrapper for the system calls of the Linux kernel necessary to the kernel-userspace interface, thetoolchainis a broad collection of programming tools vital to Linux development (including thecompilersused to build the Linux kernel itself), and thecoreutilsimplement many basicUnix tools.The GNU Project also developsBash,a popularCLIshell. Thegraphical user interface(or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of theX Window System.[78]More recently, the Linux community has sought to advance toWaylandas the new display server protocol, in place of X11. Many other open-source software projects contribute to Linux systems.

Various layers within Linux, also showing separation between theuserlandandkernel space
User mode User applications bash,LibreOffice,GIMP,Blender,0 A.D.,Mozilla Firefox,...
System components init daemon:
OpenRC,runit,systemd... 		System daemons:
polkitd,smbd,sshd,udevd... 		Window manager:
X11,Wayland,SurfaceFlinger(Android) 		Graphics:
Mesa,AMD Catalyst,... 		Other libraries:
GTK,Qt,EFL,SDL,SFML,FLTK,GNUstep,...
C standard library fopen,execv,malloc,memcpy,localtime,pthread_create... (up to 2000subroutines)
glibcaims to be fast,muslaims to be lightweight,uClibctargets embedded systems,bionicwas written forAndroid,etc. All aim to bePOSIX/SUS-compatible.
Kernel mode Linux kernel stat,splice,dup,read,open,ioctl,write,mmap,close,exit,etc. (about 380 system calls)
The Linux kernelSystem Call Interface(SCI), aims to bePOSIX/SUS-compatible[79]
Process schedulingsubsystem IPCsubsystem Memory managementsubsystem Virtual filessubsystem Networking subsystem
Other components:ALSA,DRI,evdev,klibc,LVM,device mapper,Linux Network Scheduler,Netfilter
Linux Security Modules:SELinux,TOMOYO,AppArmor,Smack
Hardware (CPU,main memory,data storage devices,etc.)

Installed components of a Linux system include the following:[78][80]

  • Abootloader,for exampleGNU GRUB,LILO,SYSLINUXorsystemd-boot.This is a program that loads the Linux kernel into the computer'smain memory,by being executed by the computer when it is turned on and after thefirmwareinitialization is performed.
  • Aninitprogram, such as the traditionalsysvinitand the newersystemd,OpenRCandUpstart.This is the firstprocesslaunched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the process tree. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in terminal mode).
  • Software libraries,which contain code that can be used by running processes. On Linux systems usingELF-format executable files, thedynamic linkerthat manages the use of dynamic libraries is known asld-linux.so.If the system is set up for the user to compile software themselves,header fileswill also be included to describe theprogramming interfaceof installed libraries. Besides the most commonly used software library on Linux systems, theGNU C Library(glibc), there are numerous other libraries, such asSDLandMesa.
    • TheC standard libraryis the library necessary to run programs written inCon a computer system, with the GNU C Library being the standard. It provides an implementation of the POSIX API, as well as extensions to that API. For embedded systems, alternatives such asmusl,EGLIBC(a glibc fork once used by Debian) anduClibc(which was designed foruClinux) have been developed, although the last two are no longer maintained. Android uses its own C library,Bionic.However, musl can additionally be used as a replacement for glibc on desktop and laptop systems, as seen on certain Linux distributions likeVoid Linux.
  • Basic Unix commands, with GNU coreutils being the standard implementation. Alternatives exist for embedded systems, such as the copyleftBusyBox,and the BSD-licensedToybox.
  • Widget toolkitsare the libraries used to buildgraphical user interfaces(GUIs) for software applications. Numerous widget toolkits are available, includingGTKand Clutter developed by theGNOME Project,Qtdeveloped by theQt Projectand led byThe Qt Company,andEnlightenment Foundation Libraries(EFL) developed primarily by theEnlightenmentteam.
  • Apackage management system,such asdpkgandRPM.Alternatively packages can be compiled from binary or sourcetarballs.
  • User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments.

User interface

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Theuser interface,also known as theshell,is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default user interface is usually graphical, although the CLI is commonly available throughterminal emulatorwindows or on a separatevirtual console.

CLI shells are text-based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output. The dominant shell used in Linux is theBourne-Again Shell(bash), originally developed for the GNU Project. Most low-level Linux components, including various parts of theuserland,use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks and provides very simpleinter-process communication.

On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are theGUI shells,packaged together with extensive desktop environments, such asKDE Plasma,GNOME,MATE,Cinnamon,LXDE,Pantheon,andXfce,though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System, often simply called "X". It providesnetwork transparencyand permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the X Window System are not capable of working over the network.[81]Several X display servers exist, with the reference implementation,X.Org Server,being the most popular.

Server distributions might provide a command-line interface for developers and administrators, but provide a custom interface for end-users, designed for the use case of the system. This custom interface is accessed through a client that resides on another system, not necessarily Linux-based.

Several types ofwindow managersexist for X11, includingtiling,dynamic,stacking,andcompositing.Window managers provide means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interact with the X Window System. SimplerX window managerssuch asdwm,ratpoison,ori3wmprovide aminimalistfunctionality, while more elaborate window managers such asFVWM,Enlightenment,orWindow Makerprovide more features such as a built-intaskbarandthemes,but are still lightweight when compared to desktop environments. Desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations, such asMutter(GNOME),KWin(KDE), orXfwm(xfce), although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.

Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the X11 protocol; as of 2022,it has received relatively wide adoption.[82]Unlike X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, window manager, and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOME's Mutter and KDE's KWin are being ported to Wayland as standalone display servers. Enlightenment has already been successfully ported since version 19.[83]Additionally, many window managers have been made for Wayland, such as Sway or Hyprland, as well as other graphical utilities such as Waybar or Rofi.

Video input infrastructure

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Main article:Video4Linux

Linux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs for handling video input devices:V4L2API for video streams and radio, andDVBAPI for digital TV reception.[84]

Due to the complexity and diversity of different devices, and due to the large number of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Also, a good userspace device library is the key to the success of having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.[85][86]

Development

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Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares similar architecture and concepts (as part of thePOSIXstandard) but does not share non-free source code with the originalUnixor Minix.
Main articles:Linux distributionandFree software

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.[87]Somefreeandopen-source software licensesare based on the principle ofcopyleft,a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Project.[88]

Linux-based distributions are intended by developers forinteroperabilitywith other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[89]SUS,[90]LSB,ISO,andANSIstandards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[91][92]

Free software projects, although developed throughcollaboration,are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger-scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.

Many Linux distributions manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package manager such asapt,yum,zypper,pacmanorportageto install, remove, and update all of a system's software from one central location.[93]

Community

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See also:Free software movementandLinux user group

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis,Debianbeing a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, asRed Hatdoes withFedora,andSUSEdoes withopenSUSE.[94][95]

In many cities and regions, local associations known asLinux User Groups(LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open-source projects haveIRCchatrooms ornewsgroups.Online forumsare another means of support, with notable examples beingLinuxQuestions.organd the various distribution-specific support and community forums, such as ones forUbuntu,Fedora,Arch Linux,Gentoo,etc. Linux distributions hostmailing lists;commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.

There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often bundlecover disksthat carry software or even complete Linux distributions.[96][97]

Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and free software. An analysis of the Linux kernel in 2017 showed that well over 85% of the code was developed by programmers who are being paid for their work, leaving about 8.2% to unpaid developers and 4.1% unclassified.[98]Some of the major corporations that provide contributions includeIntel,Samsung,Google,AMD,Oracle,andFacebook.[98]Several corporations, notably Red Hat,Canonical,andSUSEhave built a significant business around Linux distributions.

Thefree software licenses,on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen assymbiotic.One commonbusiness modelof commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.

Another business model is to give away the software to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such asCP/M,Apple DOS,and versions of theclassic Mac OSbefore 7.6 freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer's computer that shared the same architecture.

Programming on Linux

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Mostprogramming languagessupport Linux either directly or through third-party community basedports.[99]The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within theGNU toolchain,which includes theGNU Compiler Collection(GCC) and theGNU Build System.Amongst others, GCC provides compilers forAda,C,C++,GoandFortran.Many programming languages have a cross-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for examplePHP,Perl,Ruby,Python,Java,Go,RustandHaskell.First released in 2003, theLLVMproject provides an alternative cross-platform open-source compiler for many languages.Proprietarycompilers for Linux include theIntel C++ Compiler,Sun Studio,andIBM XL C/C++ Compiler.BASICis available inproceduralform fromQB64,PureBasic,Yabasic,GLBasic,Basic4GL,XBasic,wxBasic,SdlBasic,andBasic-256,as well asobject orientedthroughGambas,FreeBASIC,B4X,Basic for Qt,Phoenix Object Basic,NS Basic,ProvideX,Chipmunk Basic,RapidQandXojo.Pascalis implemented throughGNU Pascal,Free Pascal,andVirtual Pascal,as well as graphically viaLazarus,PascalABC.NET,orDelphiusingFireMonkey(previously throughBorland Kylix).

A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted atscripting,text processing and system configuration and management in general. Linux distributions supportshell scripts,awk,sedandmake.Many programs also have an embedded programming language to support configuring or programming themselves. For example,regular expressionsare supported in programs likegrepandlocate,the traditional Unix message transfer agentSendmailcontains its ownTuring completescripting system, and the advanced text editorGNU Emacsis built around a general purposeLispinterpreter.

Most distributions also include support forPHP,Perl,Ruby,Pythonand otherdynamic languages.While not as common, Linux also supportsC#and otherCLIlanguages(viaMono),Vala,andScheme.Guile Schemeacts as anextension languagetargeting the GNU system utilities, seeking to make the conventionally small,static,compiled C programs ofUnix designrapidly and dynamically extensible via an elegant,functionalhigh-level scripting system; many GNU programs can be compiled with optional Guilebindingsto this end. A number ofJava virtual machinesand development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects likeKaffeandJikes RVM;Kotlin,Scala,Groovyand otherJVM languagesare also available.

GNOMEandKDEare popular desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on theGTKandQtwidget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There area numberofIntegrated development environmentsavailable includingAnjuta,Code::Blocks,CodeLite,Eclipse,Geany,ActiveState Komodo,KDevelop,Lazarus,MonoDevelop,NetBeans,andQt Creator,while the long-established editorsVim,nanoandEmacsremain popular.[100]

Hardware support

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Linux is ubiquitously found on various types of hardware.
See also:List of Linux-supported computer architectures

The Linux kernel is a widely ported operating system kernel, available for devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers; it runs on a highly diverse range ofcomputer architectures,includingARM-based Android smartphones and theIBM Zmainframes. Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less mainstream architectures; for example, theELKSkernelforkcan run onIntel 8086orIntel 8028616-bit microprocessors, while theμClinuxkernel fork may run on systems without amemory management unit.The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a proprietary manufacturer-created operating system, such asMacintoshcomputers[101][102](withPowerPC,Intel,andApple siliconprocessors),PDAs,video game consoles,portable music players,and mobile phones.

Linux has a reputation for supporting old hardware very well by maintaining standardized drivers for a long time.[103]There are several industry associations and hardwareconferencesdevoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such asFreedomHEC.Over time, support for different hardware has improved in Linux, resulting in any off-the-shelf purchase having a "good chance" of being compatible.[104]

In 2014, a new initiative was launched to automatically collect a database of all tested hardware configurations.[105]

Uses

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Main article:Linux range of use

Market share and uptake

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Main article:Linux adoption
See also:Usage share of operating systems

Many quantitative studies of free/open-source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[106]The Linux market is growing, and the Linux operating system market size is expected to see a growth of 19.2% by 2027, reaching $15.64 billion, compared to $3.89 billion in 2019.[107]Analysts project a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 13.7% between 2024 and 2032, culminating in a market size of USD 34.90 billion by the latter year.[108]Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom fromvendor lock-in.[109][110]

Desktops and laptops
According toweb server statistics(that is, based on the numbers recorded from visits to websites by client devices), as of February 2024,the estimated market share of Linux ondesktop computersis around 3.7%. In comparison,Microsoft Windowshas a market share of around 72.9%, whilemacOScovers around 16.13%.[26]
Web servers
W3Cook publishes stats that use the top 1,000,000 Alexa domains,[111]which as of May 2015estimate that 96.55% of web servers run Linux, 1.73% run Windows, and 1.72% run FreeBSD.[112]
W3Techs publishes stats that use the top 10,000,000 Alexa domains and the top 1,000,000 Tranco domains, updated monthly[113]and as of November 2020estimate that Linux is used by 39% of the web servers, versus 21.9% being used byMicrosoft Windows.[114]40.1% used other types of Unix.[115]
IDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time;[116]this estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately that had Linux installed on it later.
Mobile devices
Android, which is based on the Linux kernel, has become the dominant operating system for smartphones. In April 2023, 68.61% of mobile devices accessing websites usingStatCounterwere from Android.[117]Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, being responsible for more than 60% of tablet sales as of 2013.[118]According to web server statistics, as of October 2021Android has a market share of about 71%, withiOSholding 28%, and the remaining 1% attributed to various niche platforms.[119]
Film production
For years, Linux has been the platform of choice in the film industry. The first major film produced on Linux servers was 1997'sTitanic.[120][121]Since then major studios includingDreamWorks Animation,Pixar,Weta Digital,andIndustrial Light & Magichave migrated to Linux.[122][123][124]According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.[125]
Use in government
Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. News of the Russian military creating its own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[126]The Indian state ofKeralahas gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.[127][128]Chinauses Linux exclusively as the operating system for itsLoongsonprocessor family to achieve technology independence.[129]In Spain, some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia.FranceandGermanyhave also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.[130]North Korea'sRed Star OS,developed as of 2002,is based on a version of Fedora Linux.[131]

Copyright, trademark, and naming

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See also:GNU/Linux naming controversyandSCO–Linux disputes

The Linux kernel islicensedunder the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under this license must make the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.[132]Other key components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may use other licenses; many libraries use theGNU Lesser General Public License(LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and theX.Orgimplementation of the X Window System uses theMIT License.

Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3.[133][134]He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software indigital rights management.[135]It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[136]

A 2001 study ofRed Hat Linux7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 millionsource lines of code.[137]Using theConstructive Cost Model,the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost aboutUS$1.82 billion[138]to develop in 2023 in the United States.[137]Most of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, includingC++,Lisp,assembly language, Perl, Python,Fortran,and variousshell scriptinglanguages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[137]

In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).[139]This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required about seventy three thousand man-years and costUS$10.2 billion[138](in 2023 dollars) to develop by conventional means.

The name "Linux" is also used for a laundry detergent made by Swiss company Rösch.[140]

In the United States, the nameLinuxis a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[10]Initially, nobody registered it. However, on August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce Jr. filed for the trademarkLinux,and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[141]The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by theLinux Mark Institute(LMI). Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,[142]but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[143]

The Free Software Foundation (FSF) prefersGNU/Linuxas the name when referring to the operating system as a whole, because it considers Linux distributions to bevariantsof the GNU operating system initiated in 1983 byRichard Stallman,president of the FSF.[19][20]The foundation explicitly takes no issue over the name Android for the Android OS, which is also an operating system based on the Linux kernel, as GNU is not a part of it.

A minority of public figures and software projects other than Stallman and the FSF, notably distributions consisting of only free software, such as Debian (which had been sponsored by the FSF up to 1996),[144]also useGNU/Linuxwhen referring to the operating system as a whole.[145][146][147]Most media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply asLinux,as do many large Linux distributions (for example,SUSE LinuxandRed Hat Enterprise Linux).

As of May 2011,about 8% to 13% of thelines of codeof the Linux distribution Ubuntu (version "Natty" ) is made of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered part of GNU); meanwhile, 6% is taken by the Linux kernel, increased to 9% when including its direct dependencies.[148]

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^GNU is the primary userland used in nearly all Linux distributions.[2][3][4]The GNU userland contains system daemons, user applications, the GUI, and various libraries.GNU Core Utilitiesare an essential part of most distributions. Most Linux distributions use theX Windowsystem.[5]Other components of the userland, such as thewidget toolkit,vary with the specific distribution, desktop environment, and user configuration.[6]
  2. ^BusyBox is an alternative userland used in many embedded Linux distributions. BusyBox replaces mostGNU Core Utilities.[7]One notable Desktop distribution using BusyBox isAlpine Linux.[8]
  3. ^The name "Linux" itself is a trademark owned byLinus Torvalds[10]and administered by theLinux Mark Institute.
  4. ^As measured by theTOP500list, which usesHPLto measure computational power

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