Wikipedia

List of substances used in rituals

This page listssubstancesused inritualcontext.

Psychoactive substances may be illegal to obtain, while non-psychoactive substances are legal, generally.

Psychoactive use

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See also:List of psychoactive plants;List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals;andreligion and drugs

This sections listsentheogens;drugs that are consumed for their intoxicating effect in combination with spiritual practice.

Hallucinogens used in rituals

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This is a list of species and genera that are used asentheogensor are used in an entheogenic concoction (such asayahuasca). For ritualistic use they may be classified ashallucinogens.The active principles and historical significance of each are also listed to illustrate the requirements necessary to be categorized as an entheogen. The psychoactive substances are usually classified assoft drugsin terms of drug harmfulness.

Animal

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Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Bullet antvenom Paraponera clavata Secretion:Poneratoxin Deliriant TheSatere-Mawepeople use bullet ants to get extremely painful stings in their initiation rites twenty times.[1]
Colorado River toadbufotoxins Incilius alvarius Secretion:5-MeO-DMT,bufotenin(et al.) Psychedelic Bufo alvarious secretion has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.[2]Controversial interpretation of Mesoamerican art.

Mushroom

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Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Dictyonema huaorani Dictyonema huaorani 5-MeO-DMT,DMT,psilocybin Psychedelic Confirmed used by shamans.[3]
Fly agaric Amanita muscaria Muscimol,ibotenic acid Depressant,anddissociative Siberian shamans.[4]Scandinavia. Lithuania.
Panther cap Amanita pantherina Muscimol,ibotenic acid Depressant,anddissociative [citation needed]
Psilocybin mushroom Psilocybespp. (etc.) Psilocybinandpsilocin;
baeocystin,norbaeocystinandaeruginascin(in trace amounts or in select species) 		Psychedelic Mazatec[5]

Plant

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Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Angel's trumpet Brugmansiaspp. Seed, flower, leaf:Tropane alkaloids Deliriant South America,[6]sometimes used as part ofayahuasca.
Ayahuasca Banisteriopsis caapi Bark:Harmine0.31-0.84%,[7]tetrahydroharmine,telepathine,dihydroshihunine,[8]5-MeO-DMT[9] Psychedelic South America; people of the Amazon Rainforest.UDVof Brazil and United States.
Bolivian torch cactus Echinopsis lageniformis Stem:Mescaline Psychedelic South America
Brosimumacutifolium Latex:Bufotenin Psychedelic Bufotenin has been identified as a component in the latex of the takini (Brosimumacutifolium) tree, which is used as a psychedelic by South American shamans.[10]
Cannabis(andcannabis concentrates) Cannabisspp. Flower:Cannabinoids(THC,andCBD) Psychedelic Hindureligion in India, Rastafari movements, Cannabis-based religions like First Church of Cannabis or International Church of Cannabis and other various groups (seeentheogenic use of cannabis)
Chacruna Psychotria viridis Leaf: DMT Psychedelic UDVof Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Brazilian church.Santo Daimehave used it as part of ayahuasca.
Chaliponga Diplopterys cabrerana Leaf: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, DMT Psychedelic Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru as part ofayahuasca.
Changa ADMT/MAOI-infused smoking blend DMT/MAOI Psychedelic Changa has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.[citation needed]
Christmasvine Turbina corymbosa Seed: LSA, lysergol, and turbicoryn; up to 0.03% lysergic acid alkaloids[11] Psychedelic Mazatec[12]
Harmal(espand, Syrian rue) Peganum harmala Seed:Harmalineand otherharmala alkaloids Psychedelic Iran and the Middle East.
Hawaiian baby woodrose Argyreia nervosa Seed: 0.325%ergoline derivativesof dry weight.[13] Psychedelic Hunashamans used them according to various oral histories.[14]
Henbane Hyoscyamus niger Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids Deliriant Ancient Greece and witches of the Middle Ages.
Iboga Tabernanthe iboga Root bark:Ibogaine[15] Psychedelic Bwitireligion of West Central Africa. Used by Western nations to treat opioid addiction.
Jimsonweed Datura stramonium Seed, flower, leaf:[16]
 Deliriant Algonquin,Navajo,Cherokee,Luiseñoand theindigenous peoplesofMarie-Galanteused this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.[17][18][19]It has also been used bySadhusof India, and theTáltosof theMagyar(Hungary).
Jurema Mimosa tenuiflorasyn.Mimosa hostilis Root bark: 1-1.7% DMT andyuremamine Psychedelic Used by the Jurema Cult (O Culto da Jurema) in the Northeastern Brazil.[20][21]
Labrador tea Rhododendronspp. Leaf:Ledol,somegrayanotoxins Deliriant CaucasianpeasantsusedRhododendronplants for these effects inshamanisticrituals.[22]
Mad honey Rhododendron ponticum Nectar:Grayanotoxins Deliriant In Nepal, this type of honey is used by the Gurung people both for its supposed medicinal and hallucinogenic properties.[23][24]
Mexican morning glory Ipomoea tricolor Seed:Ergoline derivatives[25][failed verification]

(LSA disputed)

Psychedelic Zapotecs[26]
Beach moonflower Ipomoea violacea Seed:Ergoline derivatives[27][failed verification](LSA disputed) Psychedelic Mazatec[12]
Nyakwána Virola elongata Bark, roots, leaves and flowers: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT Psychedelic The Yanomami people use the powdered resin as anentheogenknown as nyakwána which is inhaled or "snuffed" into the nasal cavity, it contains a high concentration of5-MeO-DMTandDMT.[28]
Peruvian torch cactus Echinopsis peruviana Stem:Mescaline Psychedelic Pre-Incan Chavín rituals in Peru.
Peyote Lophophora williamsii Stem: Mescaline Psychedelic Native American Churchis known as peyotism.[29][30]Also used in theOshara tradition.
Red ucuuba Virola sebifera Bark: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT Psychedelic The smoke of the inner bark of the tree is used byshamansof the indigenous people ofVenezuelain cases of fever conditions, or cooked for driving out evil ghosts.[31]
Salvia Salvia divinorum Leaf:Salvinorin Aand othersalvinorins Psychedelic Mazatec[32]
San Pedro cactus Trichocereus macrogonusvar.pachanoi(syn.Echinopsis pachanoi) Stem:Mescaline Psychedelic South America
Vilca Anadenanthera colubrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin.[33]DMT Psychedelic There have been reports of active use of vilca byWichishamans, under the namehatáj.[34]
Yopo Anadenanthera peregrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 7.4%bufotenin.[33]DMT Psychedelic Archaeological evidence of insufflation use within the period 500-1000 AD, in northern Chile, has been reported.[35]

Chemicals

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Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic substances like4-AcO-DMTare thought to beprodrugsthat metabolize into psychoactive substances that have been used as entheogens. While syntheticDMTandmescalineare reported to have identical entheogenic qualities asextractedor plant-based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how isolatedTHCproduces very different effects than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such ascannabidiolandcannabinol.A pharmaceutical version of the entheogenic brew ayahuasca is calledPharmahuasca.

Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
2C-B 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethanamine Psychedelic There are claims that 2C-B is used asentheogenby theSangoma,Nyanga,andAmagqirhapeople over their traditional plants. It is referred to as Ubulawu Nomathotholo, which roughly translates to "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors".[36][37][38]
5-MeO-DMT 2-(5-Methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethan-2-amine Psychedelic See species
Bufotenin 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-5-ol Psychedelic See species
DMT 2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethanamine Psychedelic See species
DPT N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)]ethyl-N-propylpropan-1-amine Psychedelic DPT is used as areligioussacramentby theTemple of the True Inner Lightwho believes that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations ofGod.[39]
Harmaline 7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole Psychedelic SeePeganum harmala
Ibogaine 12-Methoxyibogamine Psychedelic SeeTabernanthe iboga
Ketamine Dissociative Ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT) have been used for preparation for death (thanatological, death-rebirth psychotherapy)[40]
LSA (8β)-9,10-didehydro-6-methyl-ergoline-8-carboxamide Psychedelic See species
LSD (6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Used byLeague for Spiritual Discovery(LSD), and theNeo-American Church.
MDMA (RS)-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine Entactogen Small doses ofMDMAare used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners.[41]
Muscimol 5-(Aminomethyl)-isoxazol-3-ol Deliriant SeeAmanitaspp.
Psilocybin [3-(2-Dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate Psychedelic (See alsoPsilocybespp) Prodrug for Psilocin. TheMazateccuranderaMaría Sabinawas celebrating a mushroom velada with pills of syntheticpsilocybinnamed Indocybin synthesized byAlbert Hofmann.[42]
Salvinorin A methyl (2S,4aR,6aR,7R,9S,10aS,10bR)-9-(acetyloxy)-2-(furan-3-yl)-6a,10b-dimethyl-4,10-dioxo-dodecahydro-1H-naphtho[2,1-c]pyran-7-carboxylate Psychedelic SeeSalvia divinorum

Prodrugs

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Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
1A-LSD (6aR,9R)-4-acetyl-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Prodrug (suspected) forLSD
1P-LSD (6aR,9R)-N,N-Diethyl-7-methyl-4-propanoyl-6,6a,8,9-tetrahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide Psychedelic Prodrug (suspected) forLSD.In tests on mice1cP-LSDwas found to be an active psychedelic with similar potency to 1P-LSD.[43]
4-AcO-DMT 3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl acetate Psychedelic Prodrug forpsilocin(found inpsilocybin mushroom,see also psilocybin)

This page lists non-psychedelicpsychoactive substanceswhich are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Non-psychoactive consumption like symbolic ingestion of psychoactive substances is not mentioned here.

Non-hallucinogenic substances used in rituals

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This is a list of psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Some of these drugs are classified ashard drugsin terms of drug harmfulness.

Plant

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The plant parts are listed to prevent accidents. For example,kavaroots should always be used because the leaves of the plant are known to cause hepatoxicity and death.[44]

Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
African dream herb Entada rheedii Seed Oneirogen The species is employed in African traditional medicine to induce vivid dreams, enabling communication with the spirit world. The inner meat of the seed would be either consumed directly, or the meat would be chopped, dried, mixed with other herbs like tobacco and smoked just before sleep to induce the desired dreams.[45]
African dream root Silene undulata Root: Possiblytriterpenoid saponins Oneirogen Xhosa people of South Africa.[46]
Aztec tobacco Nicotiana rustica Leaf: up to 9% nicotine.[47]MAOI beta-carbolines. Stimulant Mapacho (South America)[48]and thuoc lao (thuốc lào) (Vietnam).Nicotiana rusticais used by Amazonian tobacco shamans known as tobaqueros.[49]Nicotiana tabacumjuice is sometimes a vernacular added ingredient.[50]
Bitter-grass Calea ternifolia Leaf: Caleicines and caleochromenes Oneirogen TheChontal peopleofOaxacareportedly use the plant, known locally asthle-pela-kano,duringdivination.[51]
Blue water lily Nymphaea caerulea Flower:Aporphine,andnuciferine Depressant Mayans and the Ancient Egyptians.[52]
Chili pepper Capsicumspp. Fruit:Capsaicin Deliriant "While the Inca may have recognized chili's potent spiritual medicine, they weren't the only culture to do so. Chilies were mixed with tobacco and other plants by shamans and medicine people in pre-Columbian Central America to aid in journeys to the upper and lower worlds on behalf of mankind."[53]
Coca,coca tea Erythroxylaceaespp. Leaf: 0.3-1.5%cocaine[54] Stimulant Coca has been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the pre-Inca period through the present.[citation needed]In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, theTaironapeople of Colombia'sSierra Nevada de Santa Martause to chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer.[55]
Cocoa Theobroma cacao Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs Stimulant Ritualistic practices originated among the Olmec, Maya and Mexica (Aztec).[56]
Coffee Coffeaspp. Seed:[57]caffeine0.06-3.2% Stimulant The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in Yemen'sSufimonasteries.[58]The Sufi monks drank coffee as an aid to concentration and even spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God.[59]
Ilex guayusa Ilex guayusa Leaves: 1.73–3.48 %caffeine.[60]Theanine Stimulant A ritual use by theQuechua peopleinvolves drinking guayusa infusion to have foretelling dreams for successful hunting expeditions.[61]Ilex guayusais used inayahuascaadmixtures for its healing powers.[62]
Kava Piper methysticum Root:[63]3-20%kavalactones Depressant Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western Oceania which consumekava.
Khat Catha edulis Leaf:[64]cathineup to 14%[65][66] Stimulant For centuries, religious leaders have consumed the leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer.[67]
Kratom Mitragyna speciosa Leaves: Opioids (1–6%mitragynine,0.01–0.04%7-hydroxymitragynine[68]) Depressant In Thailand, kratom was "used as a snack to receive guests and was part of the ritual worship of ancestors and gods." (Saingam et al.)[69]
Opium,Opium poppy Papaver somniferum Latex exudate:[70]morphine0.3–25% andcodeine0.5–4% Depressant From the earliest finds, opium appears to have had ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power.[71]In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache.[72]A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus.[73][74]The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion.[72]The opium poppy was a magical ritual plant among the Germanic tribes.[75][better source needed]
Pituri Duboisia hopwoodii,Duboisia myoporoides,Nicotiana spp. Nicotine,tropane alkaloids Stimulant Pituri,also known as mingkulpa,[76]is a mixture of leaves and wood ash traditionally chewed as astimulant(or, afterextended use,adepressant) byAboriginal Australianswidely across the continent.
Tea Camellia sinensis Leaf:[77]
 Stimulant Seetea culture.For example,East Asian tea ceremonyis a ritualized practice of making and serving tea ( trà cha) in East Asia practiced in the Sinosphere. Tea has been drunk by Buddhist monks since the Sui Dynasty (589–618 BC) to maintain a state of "mindful alertness" during long periods of meditation. Tea ceremonies have been ritualized for centuries.[citation needed]
Alcohol
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See also:History of alcoholic drinks § Pre-Columbian America,andReligion and alcohol § Historical religions
Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Alcoholic beverages Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species Alcohol Depressant Christian views on alcoholencompass a range of perspectives regarding the consumption of alcoholic beverages, with significant emphasis on moderation rather than total abstinence. The moderationist position is held byRoman Catholics[78]andEastern Orthodox,[79]and within Protestantism, it is accepted byAnglicans,[80]Lutherans[81][82]and manyReformed churches.[83][84][85][86]Moderationism is also accepted byJehovah's Witnesses.[87]

In theVodoufaith of Haiti, alcoholic drinks such as rum are consumed to be able to allow spirits called "lwa" to enter one's body and help them find the motivation for or strength to survive everyday struggles or life.[88]

InVajrayana Buddhism,particularly inTibetan Buddhistpractices, alcohol may be used during specific rituals, such as theGanachakrafeast. This ritual involves the consumption of alcohol in a controlled manner, symbolizing the transformation of negative emotions and attachments into wisdom and compassion.[89][90][91]

In Taoist rituals and practices, alcohol also plays a role as an offering and a means of connecting with the divine. An alcoholic beverage is often used in religious ceremonies and as an offering to the ancestors. The use of alcohol in Taoist rituals can symbolize purification, blessings, and the establishment of a sacred space. In these instances, the consumption of alcohol is done in a controlled and mindful manner, reflecting the Taoist emphasis on balance and harmony.

SomeHindu denominations,like theAghori,incorporate alcohol into their rituals and practices.[92][93]

TheMayaritually administeredalcohol enemasas anentheogen,sometimes adding other psychoactive substances, seeking to reach a state of ecstasy. Syringes of gourd and clay were used to inject the fluid.[94]

Alcohol replaced peyote asNative Americans' psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed.[95]

Balché Alcohol Depressant The Maya also consumed an alcoholic beverage calledbalché,which is an infusion of the bark ofLonchocarpus longistylus(see pageLonchocarpus violaceus) mixed with honey from bees fed on a type of morning glory with a high ergine content.[96]
Beer Yeast byproduct: Barley (Liquid Goldspp.) (fermented) Alcohol Depressant The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000-year-old residues of a beer with the consistency ofgruel,used by the semi-nomadicNatufiansfor ritual feasting, at theRaqefet Cavein theCarmel MountainsnearHaifainIsrael.[97][98]
Chicha Yeast byproduct: Corn (Zea mays), fermented Alcohol Depressant Thecorn beerChicha de jora was once a sacred drink of the Incas, often reserved for the most cherished of ceremonies.[99]
Kosher wine Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species Alcohol Depressant During the Jewish holiday ofPurim,Jews are obligated to drink until their judgmental abilities become impaired.[100][101]However, Purim has more of a national than a religious character.
Mead Alcohol Depressant In theNorse religionthe drinking of ales andmeadswas important in several seasonal religious festivals such asYuleandMidsummeras well as more common festivities likewakes,christenings and ritual sacrifices calledBlóts.[102]
Pulque Alcohol Depressant Before theSpanish colonization of the Americas,pulque was used for religious ceremonies inMesoamerica,but after the Spanish conquest, pulque consumption lost its ritual meanings.[103][104]
Rakia Collective term for fruit spirits (orfruit brandy) popular in the Balkans. Alcohol Depressant Althoughwineis the essential part of theEucharistrite in theEastern OrthodoxandRoman Catholicchurches in the region, rakia has found uses in certain religious and related rituals across the Balkans.[citation needed]

It is also used as a sacramental element inBektashiandAleviJemceremonies, where it is not considered alcoholic and is referred to as "dem".[105]

Sake Alcohol Depressant Sakeis often consumed as part ofShintopurification rituals.[106]Sakes served to gods as offerings prior to drinking are calledOmiki(お thần tửu).[107]People drink Omiki with gods to communicate with them and to solicit rich harvests the following year.
Tesgüino Alcohol Depressant Tesguino is a corn beer made by the Tarahumara people of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. It is brewed for local celebrations related to Holy Week. For the Tarahumara, the beer is an elixir for healing, a barter item and is considered a sacred beverage.[108]

The Tarahumara people gather every year during Easter week (semana santa) and drink large amounts of Tesgüino together while following rituals. According to the anthropologistBill Merrillof the Smithsonian Institution, the sacred drink chases large souls from the persons who drink it, "and so when people get drunk that's why they act like children [...] because the souls that are controlling their actions are the little souls, like little children".[109]

Wine Yeast byproduct: Grape (Vitisspp.) (fermented) Alcohol Depressant Wine was used in rituals and worshipped by the Egyptians[110]and the Greeks, specifically in worship ofDionysus.

TheThelemaceremony calls for five officers: a Priest, a Priestess, a Deacon, and two adult acolytes, called "the Children". The end of the ritual culminates in the consummation of theeucharist,consisting of a goblet ofwineand aCake of Light,after which the congregant proclaims "There is no part of me that is not of the gods!"[111]

Chemicals

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Substance IUPAC name Substance effect class Notes
Alcohol Ethanol Depressant SeeVitisspp.
Caffeine 1,3,7-Trimethylpurine-2,6-dione Stimulant SeeCoffea
Cathine (1S,2S)-2-amino-1-phenylpropan-1-ol Stimulant SeeCatha edulis
Cocaine Methyl (1R,2R,3S,5S)-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate Stimulant Coca addicts ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according toUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime(UNODC).[112]However, other sources claim that thecocaleaf, when consumed in its natural form or as coca tea, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical for substance addiction withdrawal syndromes.[113][114][115][116]See alsoErythroxylum coca,andErythroxylum novogranatensespp.
Codeine (5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-ol Depressant Prodrug formorphine
Kavalactones Depressant SeePiper methysticum
Morphine (4R,4aR,7S,7aR,12bS)-3-Methyl-2,3,4,4a,7,7a-hexahydro-1H-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]isoquinoline-7,9-diol Depressant SeePapaver somniferum

Poly drug use

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Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol +vilca Anadenanthera colubrina Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin.[33]DMT Psychedelic+ depressant Between 2013 and 2017,archaeological excavationsat the Quilcapampa site insouthern Peru,found that theWariused seeds from the vilca tree and combined the hallucinogenic drug withchicha,orbeermade from themolletree.[117]
Psilocybin mushroom+cocoa[dubious–discuss] Theobroma cacao Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs Stimulant Aztecs combinedcacaowithpsilocybin mushroomsto yield apolysubstance combination[citation needed]

Alternative medicine

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Animal

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Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Kambo(or sapo) Phyllomedusa bicolor Secretion: Opioid peptides (deltorphin, deltorphin I, deltorphin II and dermorphin).[118][119][120] Depressant Increasing popularity in cleansing rituals and depression treatment.[121][122][123]

Complements to psychoactive substances

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Vernacular name Species Phytochemical(s) Substance effect class Regions/Cultures of use
Aztec tobacco Nicotiana rustica Incense Nicotiana rusticais used—as incense–in association withAyahuascaritual in some parts of the Amazon.[50]

Sober use

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See also:Sacred food as offeringandList of foods with religious symbolism

Non-psychoactive substances

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See also:Religious use of incenseandSacrament § Summary table
Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Chrism,also calledmyrrh,andholy anointing oil Element inanointing of the sick,baptism,andpriesthood blessing Sacramentalolive oil.Use in the Roman Catholic Church:Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church,andOil of Catechumens.Use by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints:Priesthood blessing
Copal Bursera fagaroides Religious use of incense Used by Aztec, and Maya, in ritual ceremonies.[124]
Holy water Element inbaptism,exorcism,andEpiphany Exorcism in the Catholic Church,holy water in Eastern Christianity,holy water in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

Holy water is important to theEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churchand regarded as healing from demonic possession and for treating sick people, particularly in cases of mental illness. It can be consumed or poured over someone supposed to be afflicted by harmful things.[125][126]

MostMahayanaBuddhists typically recite sutras or various mantras (typically that of the bodhisattvaAvalokitesvarafor example) numerous times over the water, which is then either consumed or is used to bless homes afterwards. In Vajrayana Buddhism, aBumpa,a ritual object, is one of theAshtamangala,used for storing sacred water sometimes, symbolizing wisdom and long life.[127][128]

Liquids Libation Thedrink offering(Hebrew ְנֶסֶך, nesekh) was a form of libation forming one of the sacrifices and offerings of theLaw of Moses.
Sacramental bread,sacramental wine Elements of theEucharist In the Christian ceremony the sacramental bread is eitherleavenedorunleavened,and the wine isnon-alcoholicand oftenred.
White Sage Salvia apiana Ritual purification Different parts of the plant are used in ritual purification by severalNative Americancultures.[129]

Psychoactive substances

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Shown in the table below,Aztec tobacco,morning glories,andSyrian rue(also listed in the§ Psychoactive usetable), andcacao beansare (mildly) psychoactive when consumed.

Psychedelic substances used in sober rituals

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Flora
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Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Morning glory T. corymbosa,andIpomoea violacea Numerology "indigenous ritual use indicates dose levels forT. corymbosa,andI. violaceawhich are far lower than that perceived as necessary to effect hallucinosis in members of modern Western cultures. In Mexico, the only place in the world where the ingestion of morning glory seeds has an established tradition of shamanic usage, a hallucinogenic dose is said to be only thirteen seeds, a ritual amount based on religious numerology rather than chemical analysis. "[130][page needed]
Syrian rue Peganum harmala Incense "In the Himalayas, shamans use syrian rue seeds as a magical incense, inhaling it to enter a trance state in which they can engage in sexual intercourse with divining goddesses, who are said to give them information and great healing powers"[131][132]

Non-psychedelic substances used in sober rituals

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Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Cacao bean Theobroma cacao Sacrifice [citation needed]
Cocaleaves Sacrifice Sometimes coca leaves from the plant were used as offerings in rituals. Due to the nature of politics and religion in the Inca Empire, wealthy inhabitants handed out coca leaves during ritual ceremonies.[133]
Alcohol
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Vernacular name Species Use Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol (liquor), andtobacco Ofrenda Anofrenda(Spanish: "offering" ) is the offering placed in ahome altarduring the annual and traditionally MexicanDía de los Muertoscelebration. Anofrenda,which may be quite large and elaborate, is usually created by the family members of a person who has died and is intended to welcome the deceased to the altar setting. For deceased adults, the ofrenda might include a bottle or poured shot glasses oftequilaormezcal.[134][better source needed]
Alcohol (liquor), andtobacco Veneration Maximónis venerated in the form of aneffigyorcult image.Worship varies greatly by location. InSantiago Atitlán,Maximón's effigy resides in a different household every year. His image is normally only taken out of this house duringHoly Week,whereafter it will change households, but is on display year-round due to the popularity ofpilgrimages.The effigy has special attendants that stay by the altar year-round, drinking and smoking alongside it. They deliver offerings from the public to the image. Popular offerings include money, tobacco, andmoonshine.[135]
Kosher wine Element inKiddush

See also

edit

References

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Databases

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  • "Search the databases",Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases,U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
    • USDAonline database compiled from:Duke, James A. (1992).Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants(First ed.). Boca Raton, United States: CRC Press.ISBN9780849336720.OCLC25874249.

Further reading

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  • Duke, James A. (2001).Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants(Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL, United States: CRC Press.ISBN9780849338656.
  • Ott, Jonathan (1996).Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic drugs, their plant sources and history.Kennewick, US: Natural Products Co.ISBN978-0-9614234-8-3.
  • Wasson, R. Gordon (1980).The wondrous mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica.New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.97–99.ISBN978-0-07-068442-3.

    Chocolate was drunk cold and mixed with aromatic flower petals of which the overwhelming favorite was cacahua-xochitl. Indeed it seems as though these particular petals were indispensable. Our poets' 'chocolate flowers' had nothing to do botanically withTheobroma cacao,but everything to do with the chocolate beverage as drunk by the aristocrats... my belief that the flowers of the Nahuatl poets come from their exclusive privilege for indulging in the flower petals of thecacahuaxochitl.Here we are dealing with a tree that grows in Veracruz and Oaxaca, known today to botanists asQuararibea funebris.Whether the petals of these flowers were entheogens such as the mushroom and morning-glory seeds, I do not know, but that the lords of Nahua so regarded them seems virtually certain.

    — Wasson (1980). "AVeladain Huautla ". p. 98
  • Wasson, R. Gordon (1968).Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality.Part 2 by Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Wood, Stephanie; Eugene, Ore, eds. (2000–2023). "Nahuatl Dictionary".cacahuaxochitl.With support from the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Wired Humanities Projects, College of Education, University of Oregon.
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