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Lithuanian language

Lithuanian(endonym:lietuvių kalba,pronounced[lʲiəˈtʊvʲuːkɐɫˈbɐ]) is anEast Baltic languagebelonging to theBaltic branchof theIndo-European language family.It is the language ofLithuaniansand theofficial languageofLithuaniaas well as one of the official languages of theEuropean Union.There are approximately 2.8 million[2]native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 1 million speakers elsewhere. Around half a million inhabitants of Lithuania of non-Lithuanian background speak Lithuanian daily as a second language.

Lithuanian
lietuvių kalba
Pronunciation[lʲiəˈtʊvʲuːkɐɫˈbɐ]
Native toLithuania
RegionBaltic
EthnicityLithuanians
Native speakers
3.0 million (2012)[1]
Early forms
Dialects
Latin(Lithuanian alphabet)
Lithuanian Braille
Official status
Official language in
Lithuania
European Union
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated byCommission of the Lithuanian Language
Language codes
ISO 639-1lt
ISO 639-2lit
ISO 639-3Either:
lit– Modern Lithuanian
olt– Old Lithuanian
Glottologlith1251
Linguasphere54-AAA-a
Map of areas where Lithuanian is spoken as a majority language (marked in dark blue) and minority language (marked in light blue)
This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Lithuanian is closely related to neighbouringLatvian,though the two languages are not mutually intelligible. It is written in aLatin script.In some respects, some linguists consider it to be the mostconservativeof the existingIndo-European languages,retaining features of theProto-Indo-European languagethat had disappeared through development from otherdescendant languages.[3][4][5]

History

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Anyone wishing to hear howIndo-Europeansspoke should come and listen to a Lithuanian peasant.

—Antoine Meillet[6]

Among Indo-European languages, Lithuanian is conservative in its grammar and phonology, retaining archaic features otherwise found only in ancient languages such asSanskrit[7](particularly its early form,Vedic Sanskrit) orAncient Greek.Thus, it is an important source for the reconstruction of theProto-Indo-European languagedespite its late attestation (with the earliest texts dating only toc. 1500AD,whereas Ancient Greek was first written down about three thousand years earlier in c.1450 BC).[8]

Map of the prevalence of hydronyms of Baltic origin[9]

According tohydronymsofBalticorigin, theBaltic languageswere spoken in a large area east of theBaltic Sea,and in c.1000 BC it had two linguistic units: western and eastern.[9]The Greek geographerPtolemyhad already written of two Baltic tribe/nations by name, theGalindai(Γαλίνδαι) andSudinoi(Σουδινοί), in the 2nd century AD.[10][11]Lithuanian originated from the Eastern Baltic subgroup and remained nearly unchanged until c.1 AD, however in c.500 AD the language of the northern part of Eastern Balts was influenced by theFinnic languages,which fueled the development of changes from the language of the Southern Balts (see:Latgalian,which developed intoLatvian,and extinctCuronian,Semigallian,andSelonian).[9]The language of Southern Balts was less influenced by this process and retained many of its older features, which form Lithuanian.[9]According toglottochronologicalresearch, the Eastern Baltic languages split from the Western Baltic ones between c.400 BC and c.600 BC.[12][13]

Area where Lithuanian was spoken in the 16th century

The differentiation between Lithuanian and Latvian started after c.800 AD; for a long period, they could be considered dialects of a single language.[14]At a minimum, transitional dialects existed until the 14th or 15th century and perhaps as late as the 17th century.[14][15]The GermanLivonian Brothers of the Swordoccupied the western part of theDaugavabasin, which resulted incolonizationof the territory of modernLatvia(at the time it was calledTerra Mariana) by Germans and had a significant influence on the language's independent development due toGermanisation(see also:Baltic GermansandBaltic German nobility).[14][16]

There was fascination with the Lithuanian people and their language among the late 19th-century researchers, and the philologistIsaac Taylorwrote the following in hisThe Origin of the Aryans(1892):

"Thus it would seem that the Lithuanians have the best claim to represent the primitiveAryan race,as their language exhibits fewer of those phonetic changes, and of those grammatical losses which are consequent on the acquirement of a foreign speech. "[17]

Lithuanian was studied by several linguists such asFranz Bopp,August Schleicher,Adalbert Bezzenberger,Louis Hjelmslev,[18]Ferdinand de Saussure,[19]Winfred P. LehmannandVladimir Toporov,[20]Jan Safarewicz,[21]and others.

By studying place names of Lithuanian origin, linguistJan Safarewicz[pl]concluded that the eastern boundaries of Lithuanian used to be in the shape of zigzags throughGrodno,Shchuchyn,Lida,Valozhyn,Svir,andBraslaw.[9]Such eastern boundaries partly coincide with the spread ofCatholicandOrthodoxfaith, and should have existed at the time of theChristianization of Lithuaniain 1387 and later.[9]Safarewicz's eastern boundaries were moved even further to the south and east by other scholars (e.g.Mikalay Biryla[be],Petras Gaučas[lt],Jerzy Ochmański[pl],Aleksandras Vanagas,Zigmas Zinkevičius,and others).[9]

Proto-Balto-Slavicbranched off directly from Proto-Indo-European, then sub-branched intoProto-BalticandProto-Slavic.Proto-Baltic branched off into Proto-West Baltic and Proto-East Baltic.[22]The Baltic languages passed through a Proto-Balto-Slavic stage, from which the Baltic languages retain exclusive and non-exclusive lexical, morphological, phonological and accentual isoglosses in common with theSlavic languages,which represent their closest living Indo-European relatives. Moreover, with Lithuanian being so archaic in phonology, Slavic words can often be deduced from Lithuanian by regularsound laws;for example, Lith.vilkasandPolishwilk←PBSl.*wilkás(cf.PSl.*vьlkъ) ←PIE*wĺ̥kʷos,all meaning "wolf".

Initially, Lithuanian was aspoken languagein theGrand Duchy of LithuaniaandDuchy of Prussia,while the beginning of Lithuanian writing is possibly associated with the introduction ofChristianity in LithuaniawhenMindaugaswasbaptizedand crowned King of Lithuania in 1250–1251.[23][9]It is believed thatprayerswere translated into the local dialect of Lithuanian byFranciscanmonks during the baptism of Mindaugas, however none of the writings has survived.[23]The first recorded Lithuanian word, reported to have been said on 24 December 1207 from the chronicle ofHenry of Latvia,wasBa,aninterjectionof a Lithuanian raider after he found no loot to pillage in a Livonian church.[24]

Lithuanian was mentioned as one of the languages of the participants of theCouncil of Constancein 1414–1418: seeLingwa Lietowia(left) andLittowelch(right) in a 15th centuryChronik des Konstanzer Konzilscompiled byUlrich of Richenthal.

Although no writings in Lithuanian have survived from the 15th century or earlier,[23]Lithuanian (Latin:Lingwa Lietowia) was mentioned as one of the European languages of the participants in theCouncil of Constancein 1414–1418.[25][26][27]From the middle of the 15th century, the legend spread about theRomanorigin of theLithuanian nobility(from thePalemon lineage), and the closeness of the Lithuanian language and Latin, thus this let some intellectuals in the mid-16th century to advocate for replacement of Ruthenian with Latin, as they considered Latin as the native language of Lithuanians.[28][29]

Initially,LatinandChurch Slavonicwere the mainwritten(chancellery) languages of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but in the late 17th century – 18th century Church Slavonic was replaced with Polish.[23][30]Nevertheless, Lithuanian was aspoken languageof themedieval Lithuanian rulersfrom theGediminidsdynasty and its cadet branches:KęstutaičiaiandJagiellonian dynasties.[31][32][33][34]It is known thatJogaila,beingethnic Lithuanianby themale-line,himself knew and spoke Lithuanian withVytautas the Great,his cousin from the Gediminids dynasty.[32][33][35]During theChristianization of Samogitianone of the clergy, who arrived toSamogitiawith Jogaila, were able to communicate with the natives, therefore Jogaila himself taught theSamogitiansaboutCatholicism;thus he was able to communicate in theSamogitian dialectof Lithuanian.[36]Soon afterwards Vytautas the Great wrote in his 11 March 1420 letter toSigismund, Holy Roman Emperor,that Lithuanian and Samogitian are the same language.[37]

The Grand Duke of Lithuania,Alexander Jagiellon,specified that the Roman Catholic priests in these 28 churches must know the Lithuanian language, according to his letter of 18 September 1501, which was addressed to the Bishop of Vilnius Albertas.[38][39]

The use of Lithuanian continued at the Lithuanianroyal courtafter the deaths of Vytautas the Great (1430) and Jogaila (1434).[34]For example, since the young Grand DukeCasimir IV Jagiellonwas underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of theLithuanian Council of Lords,presided byJonas Goštautas,while Casimir IV Jagiellon was taught Lithuanian andcustoms of Lithuaniaby appointed court officials.[40][41][42][31]During the Polishszlachta's envoys visit to Casimir in 1446, they noticed that in Casimir's royal court the Lithuanian-speaking courtiers were mandatory, alongside the Polish courtiers.[28][43]Casimir IV Jagiellon's sonSaint Casimir,who was subsequently announced as patron saint of Lithuania, was apolyglotand among other languages knew Lithuanian.[44]Grand DukeAlexander Jagiellonalso could understand and speak Lithuanian as multiple Lithuanian priests served in his royal chapel and he also maintained a Lithuanian court.[28][45][46]In 1501,Erazm Ciołek,a priest of the Vilnius Cathedral, explained to thePopethat the Lithuanians preserve their language and ensure respect to it (Linguam propriam observant), but they also use theRuthenian languagefor simplicity reasons because it is spoken by almost half of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[28]A note written bySigismund von Herbersteinin the first half of the 16th century states that, in an ocean ofRuthenianin this part of Europe, there were two non-Ruthenian regions: Lithuania and Samogitia where its inhabitants spoke their own language, but many Ruthenians were also living among them.[47]

The oldest survivingmanuscriptin Lithuanian (c. 1503), rewritten from a 15th century original text.

The earliest surviving written Lithuanian text is a translation dating from about 1503–1525 of theLord's Prayer,theHail Mary,and theNicene Creedwritten in the Southern Aukštaitian dialect.[23]On 8 January 1547 the first Lithuanian book was printed – theCatechismof Martynas Mažvydas.[23]

At the royal courts in Vilnius ofSigismund II Augustus,the last Grand Duke of Lithuania prior to theUnion of Lublin,both Polish and Lithuanian were spoken equally widely.[34]In 1552 Sigismund II Augustus ordered that orders of theMagistrateof Vilnius be announced in Lithuanian, Polish, and Ruthenian.[48]The same requirement was valid for the Magistrate ofKaunas.[49][50]

In the 16th century, following the decline of Ruthenian usage in favor of Polish in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Lithuanian language strengthened its positions in Lithuania due to reforms in religious matters and judicial reforms which allowed lower levels of theLithuanian nobilityto participate in the social-political life of the state.[28]In 1599,Mikalojus Daukšapublished hisPostiland in itsprefaceshe expressed that the Lithuanian language situation had improved and thanked bishopMerkelis Giedraitisfor his works.[28]

In 1776–1790 about 1,000 copies of the first Catholicprimerin Lithuanian –Mokslas skaitymo rašto lietuviško– were issued annually, and it continued to be published until 1864. Over 15,000 copies appeared in total.[51][52][53]

Lithuanian school in Vilnius in 1902

In 1864, following theJanuary Uprising,Mikhail Muravyov,the RussianGovernor General of Lithuania,banned the language in education and publishingand barred use of the Latin alphabetaltogether, although books continued to be printed in Lithuanian across the border inEast Prussiaand in theUnited States.[54][55]Brought into the country bybook smugglers(Lithuanian:knygnešiai) despite the threat of long prison sentences, they helped fuelgrowing nationalist sentimentthat finally led to the lifting of the ban in 1904.[54][55]According to theRussian Empire Censusof 1897 (at the height of the Lithuanian press ban), 53.5% of Lithuanians (10 years and older) were literate, while the average of theRussian Empirewas only 24–27.7% (in the European part ofRussiathe average was 30%, inPoland– 40.7%).[52][56]In the Russian Empire Lithuanian children were mostly educated by their parents or in secret schools by "daractors" in native Lithuanian language, while only 6.9% attended Russian state schools due to resistance toRussification.[57][58][59]Russian governorates with significant Lithuanian populations had one of the highest populationliteracyrates:Vilna Governorate(in 1897 ~23.6–50% Lithuanian of whom 37% were literate),Kovno Governorate(in 1897 66% Lithuanian of whom 55.3% were literate),Suwałki Governorate(in 1897 in counties of the governorate where Lithuanian population was dominant, 76,6% of males and 50,2% of females were literate).[60][61][62][63]

Area (marked in greenish-yellow) where Lithuanian language was dominant in 1827, depicted in a map by Lithuania-born historian, geographerStanisław Plater(1827)
Area where Lithuanian language was dominantly spoken, including its islands and mixed territories in the late 19th century by Polish linguistJan Michał Rozwadowski(1930)
Ethnolinguistic area of Lithuanians and the Lithuanian language in 1917 byPrussian LithuanianprofessorVilius Gaigalaitis(Wilhelm Gaigalat), the dashed areas represent linguistically mixed border areas where Lithuanians formed a large minority

Jonas Jablonskis(1860–1930) made significant contributions to the formation of standard Lithuanian.[64]The conventions of written Lithuanian had been evolving during the 19th century, but Jablonskis, in the introduction to hisLietuviškos kalbos gramatika,was the first to formulate and expound the essential principles that were so indispensable to its later development.[64][65]His proposal for Standard Lithuanian was based on his nativeWestern Aukštaitiandialect with some features of the easternPrussian Lithuanians' dialect spoken inLithuania Minor.[64][65]These dialects[clarification needed]had preserved archaic phonetics mostly intact due to the influence of the neighbouringOld Prussian,while other dialects had experienced differentphonetic shifts.

Title page ofVyriausybės Žinioswith articles of the 1922 Constitution of Lithuania. The sixth article established Lithuanian as the sole official language of Lithuania.

Lithuanian became the official language of the country following therestoration of Lithuania's statehoodin 1918. The 1922Constitution of Lithuania(the first permanent Lithuanianconstitution) recognized it as the soleofficial languageof the state and mandated its use throughout the state.[66][67]The improvement of education system during theinterwar periodresulted in 92% of literacy rate of the population in Lithuania in 1939 (mostly only part of the older age inhabitants were still illiterate).[57]

Following the Żeligowski's Mutiny in 1920, Vilnius Region was detached from Lithuania and was eventually annexed by Poland in 1922. This resulted in repressions of Lithuanians and mass-closure of Lithuanian language schools in the Vilnius Region, especially when Vilnius VoivodeLudwik Bociańskiissued a secret memorandum of 11 February 1936 which stated the measures for suppressing the Lithuanians in the region.[68][69][70][71]Some Lithuanian historians, likeAntanas Tyla[lt]and Ereminas Gintautas, consider these Polish policies as amounting to an "ethnocideof Lithuanians ".[68][69]

Between 1862 and 1944, the Lithuanian schools were completely banned in Lithuania Minor and the language was almost completely eliminated there.[65]The Baltic-origin place names retained their basis for centuries inPrussiabut were Germanized (e.g.Tilžė–Tilsit,Labguva–Labiau,Vėluva–Wehliau,etc.); however, after the annexation of theKönigsberg regioninto theRussian SFSR,they were changed completely, regardless of previous tradition (e.g.Tilsit–Sovetsk,Labiau–Polesk,Wehliau–Znamensk,etc.).[72]

TheSoviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940,German occupation in 1941,and eventuallySoviet re-occupation in 1944,reduced the independent Republic of Lithuania to theLithuanian Soviet Socialist Republicwithin theSoviet Union.[65]Soviet authoritiesintroduced Lithuanian–Russianbilingualism,[65]and Russian, as thede factoofficial language of the USSR, took precedence and the use of Lithuanian was reduced in a process of Russification.[73][65]Many Russian-speaking workers and teachers migrated to the Lithuanian SSR (fueled by theindustrialization in the Soviet Union).[74]Russian consequently came into use in state institutions: the Central Committee of theCommunist Party of Lithuania(there were 80% Russians among the 22,000Communist Partymembers in the Lithuanian SSR in 1948), radio and television (61–74% of broadcasts were in Russian in 1970).[74]Lithuanians passively resisted Russification and continued to use their own language.[75]

On 18 November 1988, theSupreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSRrestored Lithuanian as the official language of Lithuania, under from the popular pro-independence movementSąjūdis.[66]

On 11 March 1990, theAct of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuaniawas passed. Lithuanian was recognized as sole official language of Lithuania in the Provisional Basic Law (Lithuanian:Laikinasis Pagrindinis Įstatymas) and the Constitution of 1992, written during theLithuanian constitutional referendum.[66][76]

Classification

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Distribution of the Baltic tribes,c. 1200(boundaries are approximate).
Various schematic sketches of possible Balto-Slavic language relationships.

Lithuanian is one of two livingBaltic languages,along withLatvian,and they constitute the eastern branch of Baltic languages family.[77]An earlierBalticlanguage,Old Prussian,was extinct by the 18th century; the other Western Baltic languages,CuronianandSudovian,became extinct earlier. Some theories, such as that ofJānis Endzelīns,considered that the Baltic languages form their own distinct branch of the family ofIndo-European languages,and Endzelīns thought that the similarity between Baltic and Slavic was explicable through language contact.[78]There is also an opinion that suggests the union of Baltic and Slavic languages into a distinct sub-family ofBalto-Slavic languagesamongst the Indo-European family of languages. Such an opinion was first represented byAugust Schleicher.[79]Some supporters of the Baltic and Slavic languages unity even claim thatProto-Baltic branchdid not exist, suggesting that Proto-Balto-Slavic split into three language groups:East Baltic,West BalticandProto-Slavic.[80][81][82][83]Antoine MeilletandJan Baudouin de Courtenay,on the contrary, believed that the similarity between the Slavic and Baltic languages was caused by independent parallel development, and the Proto-Balto-Slavic language did not exist.[84]

A map of European languages (1741) with the first verse of theLord's Prayerin Lithuanian

An attempt to reconcile the opposing stances was made byJan Michał Rozwadowski.[79]He proposed that the two language groups were indeed a unity after the division of Indo-European, but also suggested that after the two had divided into separate entities (Baltic and Slavic), they had posterior contact.[79]The genetic kinship view is augmented by the fact that Proto-Balto-Slavic is easily reconstructible with important proofs in historic prosody. The alleged (or certain, as certain as historical linguistics can be) similarities due to contact are seen in such phenomena as the existence of definite adjectives formed by the addition of an inflected pronoun (descended from the same Proto-Indo-European pronoun), which exist in both Baltic and Slavic yet nowhere else in the Indo-European family (languages such as Albanian and theGermanic languagesdeveloped definite adjectives independently), and that is not reconstructible for Proto-Balto-Slavic, meaning that they most probably developed through language contact.[85]

The Baltichydronymsarea stretches from theVistulaRiver in the west to the east ofMoscowand from theBaltic Seain the north to the south ofKyiv.[86][87]Vladimir Toporov andOleg Trubachyov(1961, 1962) studied Baltic hydronyms in theRussianandUkrainianterritory.[88]Hydronyms andarchaeologyanalysis show that the Slavs started migrating to the Baltic areas east and north-east directions in the 6–7th centuries, before then, the Baltic and Slavic boundary was south of thePripyat River.[89]In the 1960s,Vladimir ToporovandVyacheslav Ivanovmade the following conclusions about the relationship between the Baltic and Slavic languages:

  • a) Proto-Slavic formed from the peripheral-type Baltic dialects;
  • b) the Slavic linguistic type formed later from the structural model of the Baltic languages;
  • c) the Slavic structural model is a result of a transformation of the structural model of the Baltic languages.

These scholars' theses do not contradict the Baltic and Slavic languages closeness and from a historical perspective, specify the Baltic-Slavic languages' evolution.[90][91]

So, there are at least six points of view on the relationships between the Baltic and Slavic. However, as for the hypotheses related to the "Balto-Slavic problem", it is noted that they are more focused on personal theoretical constructions and deviate to some extent from thecomparative method.[92]

Geographic distribution

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Lithuanian is spoken mainly inLithuania.It is also spoken by ethnic Lithuanians living in today'sBelarus,Latvia,Poland,and theKaliningrad Oblastof Russia, as well as by sizable emigrant communities inArgentina,Australia,Brazil,Canada,Denmark,Estonia,France,Germany,Iceland,Ireland,Norway,Russia,Sweden,theUnited Kingdom,theUnited States,Uruguay,andSpain.[93]

2,955,200 people in Lithuania (including 3,460Tatars), or about 86% of the 2015 population, are native Lithuanian speakers; most Lithuanian inhabitants of other nationalities also speak Lithuanian to some extent. The total worldwide Lithuanian-speaking population is about 3,200,000.

Official status

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Lithuanian is thestate languageof Lithuania and anofficial language of the European Union.[66][94]

Dialects

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Dialects of Lithuanian.[95]Samogitian dialectsare yellow, red, and brown;Aukštaitian subdialectsare green, blue, and purple.
A woman speaking in Lithuanian

In theCompendium Grammaticae Lithvanicae,published in 1673, three dialects of Lithuanian are distinguished:Samogitian dialect(Latin:Samogitiae) ofSamogitia,Royal Lithuania (Latin:Lithvaniae Regalis) and Ducal Lithuania (Latin:Lithvaniae Ducalis).[96]Ducal Lithuanian is described as pure (Latin:Pura), half-Samogitian (Latin:SemiSamogitizans) and having elements ofCuronian(Latin:Curonizans).[96]Authors of theCompendium Grammaticae Lithvanicaesingled out that the Lithuanians of theVilnius Region(Latin:in tractu Vilnensi) tend to speak harshly, almost likeAustrians,Bavariansand others speakGermaninGermany.[96]

Due to thehistorical circumstances of Lithuania,Lithuanian-speaking territory was divided intoLithuania properandLithuania Minor,therefore, in the 16th–17th centuries, three regional variants of the common language emerged.[65][23]Lithuanians in Lithuania Minor spoke Western Aukštaitian dialect with specifics ofĮsrutisandRagainėenvirons (e.g. works ofMartynas Mažvydas,Jonas Bretkūnas,Jonas Rėza,andDaniel Klein'sGrammatica Litvanica).[65][23]The other two regional variants of the common language were formed in Lithuania proper: middle, which was based on the specifics of theDuchy of Samogitia(e.g. works ofMikalojus Daukša,Merkelis Petkevičius,Steponas Jaugelis‑Telega,Samuelis Boguslavas Chylinskis,andMikołaj Rej's Lithuanianpostil), and eastern, based on the specifics of Eastern Aukštaitians, living inVilniusandits region(e.g. works ofKonstantinas Sirvydas,Jonas Jaknavičius,andRobert Bellarmine'scatechism).[65][23]InVilnius University,there are preserved texts written in the Lithuanian language of the Vilnius area, a dialect of Eastern Aukštaitian, which was spoken in a territory located south-eastwards from Vilnius: the sources are preserved in works of graduates fromStanislovas Rapolionis-based Lithuanian language schools, graduate Martynas Mažvydas and Rapalionis relativeAbraomas Kulvietis.[97][98]The development of Lithuanian in Lithuania Minor, especially in the 18th century, was successful due to many publications and research.[65][23]In contrast, the development of Lithuanian in Lithuania proper was obstructed due to thePolonizationof theLithuanian nobility,especially in the 18th century, and it was being influenced by the Samogitian dialect.[65][23]The Lithuanian-speaking population was also dramatically decreased by theGreat Northern War plague outbreakin 1700–1721 which killed 49% of residents in theGrand Duchy of Lithuania(1/3 residents in Lithuania proper and up to 1/2 residents inSamogitia) and 53% of residents in Lithuania Minor (more than 90% of the deceased werePrussian Lithuanians).[99]Since the 19th century to 1925 the amount of Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania Minor (excludingKlaipėda Region) decreased from 139,000 to 8,000 due toGermanisationandcolonization.[100]

Ethnographic map of Lithuanians (Littauer) and Latvians (Eigentliche Letten) in 1847 byHeinrich Berghaus

As a result of a decrease in the usage of spoken Lithuanian in the eastern part of Lithuania proper, in the 19th century, it was suggested to create a standardized Lithuanian based on the Samogitian dialect.[65]Nevertheless, it was not accomplished because everyone offered their Samogitian subdialects and the Eastern and Western Aukštaitians offered their Aukštaitian subdialects.[65]

Linguistic areal of the Lithuanian language in Russia and German Prussia by Ethnographer Franz Oskar Tetzner in 1902

In the second half of the 19th century, when theLithuanian National Revivalintensified, and the preparations to publish a Lithuanian periodical press were taking place, the mostly south-western Aukštaitian revival writers did not use the 19th-century Lithuanian of Lithuania Minor as it was largelyGermanized.[65]Instead, they used a more pure Lithuanian language which has been described byAugust SchleicherandFriedrich Kurschatand this way the written language of Lithuania Minor was transferred to resurgent Lithuania.[65]The most famous standardizer of the Lithuanian,Jonas Jablonskis,established the south-western Aukštaitian dialect, including the Eastern dialect of Lithuania Minor, as the basis of standardized Lithuanian in the 20th century, which led to him beingnicknamedthe father of standardized Lithuanian.[65][64]

According to Polish professorJan Otrębski's article published in 1931, the Polish dialect in theVilnius Regionand in the northeastern areas in general are very interesting variant of the Polish language as this dialect developed in a foreign territory which was mostly inhabited by the Lithuanians who wereBelarusized(mostly) or Polonized, and to prove this Otrębski provided examples of Lithuanianisms in theTutejszy language.[101][102]In 2015, Polish linguistMirosław Jankowiak[pl]attested that many of the Vilnius Region's inhabitants who declarePolish nationalityspeak a Belarusian dialect which they callmowa prosta('simple speech').[103]

Currently, Lithuanian is divided into two dialects:Aukštaitian(Highland Lithuanian), andSamogitian(Lowland Lithuanian).[104][105]There are significant differences between standard Lithuanian and Samogitian and these are often described as separate languages.[104]The modern Samogitian dialect formed in the 13th–16th centuries under the influence ofCuronian.[106]Lithuanian dialects are closely connected withethnographical regions of Lithuania.[107]Even nowadays Aukštaitians and Samogitians can have considerable difficulties understanding each other if they speak with their dialects and not standard Lithuanian, which is mandatory to learn in the Lithuanian education system.[108]

Dialects are divided into subdialects. Both dialects have three subdialects. Samogitian is divided into West, North and South;Aukštaitianinto West (Suvalkiečiai), South (Dzūkian) and East.[109]

Script

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Main article:Lithuanian orthography
See also:Lithuanian Braille

Lithuanian uses theLatin scriptsupplemented withdiacritics.It has 32letters.In thecollationorder,yfollows immediately afterį(calledinosinė), because bothyandįrepresent the same long vowel[iː]:[110]

Majuscule forms(also calleduppercaseorcapital letters)
A Ą B C Č D E Ę Ė F G H I Į Y J K L M N O P R S Š T U Ų Ū V Z Ž
Minuscule forms(also calledlowercaseorsmall letters)
a ą b c č d e ę ė f g h i į y j k l m n o p r s š t u ų ū v z ž

In addition, the following digraphs are used, but are treated as sequences of two letters for collation purposes. The digraphchrepresents a single sound, the velar fricative[x],whiledzanddžare pronounced like straightforward combinations of their component letters (sounds):

Dz dz[dz](dzė), Dž dž[dʒ](džė), Ch ch[x](cha).

The distinctive Lithuanian letterĖwas used for the first time in theDaniel Klein'sGrammatica Litvanicaand firmly established itself in Lithuanian since then.[111][112][113][114]However, linguistAugust SchleicherusedË(with two points above it) instead ofĖfor expressing the same.[115]In theGrammatica LitvanicaKlein also established the letterWfor marking the sound [v], the use of which was later abolished in Lithuanian (it was replaced withV,notably by authors of theVarpasnewspaper).[111][115][116]The usage ofVinstead ofWespecially increased since the early 20th century, likely considerably influenced by Lithuanian press and schools.[116]

The Lithuanian writing system is largely phonemic, i.e., one letter usually corresponds to a singlephoneme(sound). There are a few exceptions: for example, the letterirepresents either the vowel[ɪ],as in Englishsit,or is silent and merely indicates that the preceding consonant ispalatalized.The latter is largely the case whenioccurs after a consonant and is followed by abackor acentral vowel,except in some borrowed words (e.g., the first consonant inlūpa[ˈɫûːpɐ],"lip", is avelarized dental lateral approximant;on the other hand, the first consonant inliūtas[ˈlʲuːt̪ɐs̪],"lion", is a palatalizedalveolar lateral approximant;both consonants are followed by the same vowel, the long[uː],and no[ɪ]can be pronounced inliūtas).

Title pages of two Lithuanianprimers:Moksłas skaytima raszta lietuwiszka(1783 edition) andMažas lietuviškas elementorius(1905 edition), demonstrating changes of Lithuanian orthography in the 19th–20th centuries

Due toPolish influence,the Lithuanian alphabet includedsz,czand the PolishŁfor the first sound and regular L (without a following i) for the second:łupa,lutas.[113]During theLithuanian National Revivalin the 19th century the PolishŁwas abolished, whiledigraphssz,cz(that are also common in thePolish orthography) were replaced withšandčfrom theCzech orthographybecause formally they were shorter.[113][115][117]Nevertheless, another argument to abolishszandczwas to distinguish Lithuanian fromPolish.[115]The new lettersšandčwere cautiously used in publications intended for more educated readers (e.g.Varpas,Tėvynės sargas,Ūkininkas), howeverszandczcontinued to be in use in publications intended for less educated readers as they caused tension in society and prevailed only after 1906.[118][119]

The Lithuanians also adopted the letteržfrom the Czechs.[113]

Thenasal vowelsąandęwere taken from the Polish spelling and began to be used byRenaissanceLithuanian writers,later the Lithuanians introduced the nasal vowelsįandųas analogues.[113][115]The letterūis the latest addition by linguistJonas Jablonskis.[120][115]

Amacron(onu), anogonek(ona,e,i,andu), adot(one), andy(in place ofi) are used for grammatical and historical reasons and always denotevowel lengthin Modern Standard Lithuanian.Acute,grave,andtildediacritics are used to indicatepitch accents.However, these pitch accents are generally not written, except in dictionaries, grammars, and where needed for clarity, such as to differentiate homonyms and dialectal use.

Phonology

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Main article:Lithuanian phonology

Consonants

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Written oath in Lithuanian (1680) where Lithuanians names and surnames has endings with "-as" (e.g. Jonas Miteykienas, Kazimieras Wikszcialunas, etc.)[121]
Consonant phonemes of Lithuanian
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar
hard soft hard soft hard soft hard soft
Nasal m mʲ n nʲ
Stop voiceless p pʲ t tʲ k kʲ
voiced b bʲ d dʲ ɡ ɡʲ
Affricate voiceless t͡s t͡sʲ t͡ʃ t͡ɕ
voiced d͡z d͡zʲ d͡ʒ d͡ʑ
Fricative voiceless (f) (fʲ) s sʲ ʃ ɕ (x) (xʲ)
voiced v vʲ z zʲ ʒ ʑ j (ɣ) (ɣʲ)
Approximant ɫ lʲ
Trill r rʲ

All Lithuanian consonants except/j/have two variants: one non-palatalizedand one palatalized, for example,/b/–/bʲ/,/d/–/dʲ/,/ɡ/–/ɡʲ/(see the chart above for the full consonant set, represented byIPAsymbols). The consonants/f/,/x/,/ɣ/and their palatalized counterparts are only found inloanwords.

/t͡ɕ,d͡ʑ,ɕ,ʑ/have been traditionally transcribed with ⟨t͡ʃʲ, d͡ʒʲ, ʃʲ, ʒʲ⟩, but they can be seen as equivalent transcriptions, with the former set being somewhat easier to write.[122]

Vowels

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An example ofpoetryin Lithuanian, published byVilnius Universityin 1729

Lithuanian has six long vowels and four short ones (not including disputed phonemes marked in brackets). Length has traditionally been considered the distinctive feature, though short vowels are also more centralized and long vowels more peripheral:

Front Central Back
Close iː ɪ ʊ uː
Mid eː ɛ,(e) (ɔ) oː
Open æː ɐ aː
  • /e,ɔ/are restricted to loanwords. Many speakers merge the former with/ɛ/.[123]

Diphthongs

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Lithuanian is traditionally described as having ninediphthongs,ai,au,ei,eu,oi,ou,ui,ie,anduo.However, some approaches (i.e., Schmalstieg 1982) treat them as vowel sequences rather than diphthongs; indeed, the longer component depends on the type of stress, whereas in diphthongs, the longer segment is fixed.

stressless
or tilde 		acute stress
ai [ɐɪ̯ˑ] [âˑɪ̯]
ei [ɛɪ̯ˑ] [æ̂ˑɪ̯]
au [ɒʊ̯ˑ] [âˑʊ̯]
eu [ɛʊ̯ˑ] [ɛ̂ʊ̯]
iau [ɛʊ̯ˑ] [ɛ̂ˑʊ̯]
ie [iə] [îə][124]
oi — [ɔ̂ɪ̯]
ou — [ɔ̂ʊ̯]
ui [ʊɪ̯ˑ] [ʊ̂ɪ̯]
uo [uə] [ûə][124]

Pitch accent

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Main article:Lithuanian accentuation

The Lithuanian prosodic system is characterized by free accent and distinctive quantity (i.e.syllable weight). The word prosody of Lithuanian is sometimes described as a restrictedtonesystem, also called apitch accentsystem.[125]In Lithuanian,lexical wordscontain a single syllable that is prominent or stressed. Among those,heavy syllables– that is, those containing along vowel,diphthong,or asonorantcoda – bear either one of two tones: a falling (oracute tone) or a rising (orcircumflex tone). Light syllables (syllables with short vowels and optionally alsoobstruentcodas) do not have the two-way contrast of heavy syllables.

Grammar

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Main articles:Lithuanian grammarandLithuanian declension
Daniel Klein'sGrammatica Litvanica,the first printed grammar of Lithuanian, published in Königsberg in 1653
Universitas lingvarum Litvaniae,published in Vilnius in 1737, the oldest surviving grammar of Lithuanian published in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Lietuviškos kalbos gramatika(English:Lithuanian Grammar) byJonas Jablonskis,published inTilsitin 1901

The first prescriptive printedgrammarof Lithuanian –Grammatica Litvanicawas commissioned by theDuke of Prussia,Friedrich Wilhelm,for use in the Lithuanian-speaking parishes ofEast Prussia.It was written byDaniel KleininLatinand was published by Johann Reusner in 1653 inKönigsberg,Duchy of Prussia.[126][127][128]In ~1643 Christophorus Sapphun wrote the Lithuanian grammarCompendium Grammaticae Lithvanicaeslightly earlier than Klein, however the edited variant of Sapphun's grammar was published only in 1673 by Theophylus Gottlieb Schultz.[129][130][131]

In one of the first Lithuanian grammars –Compendium Grammaticae Lithvanicae,published in 1673, most of the given examples are with Lithuanian endings (e.g. names Jonas = Jonas, Jonuttis = Jonutis, etc.), therefore it allows to highlight the tendency of spelling the endings of words in the Old Lithuanian writings.[132]

TheUniversitas lingvarum Litvaniae,published inVilniusin 1737, is the oldest surviving grammar of Lithuanian published in the territory of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania.[133][134]

The first scientificCompendium of Lithuanianwas published in German in 1856/57 byAugust Schleicher,a professor atCharles UniversityinPrague.[135][136]In it he describes Prussian-Lithuanian, which later became the "skeleton" (Būga) of modern Lithuanian. Schleicher asserted that Lithuanian can compete with theGreekandRoman (Old Latin) languagesin perfection of forms.[137]

Lithuanian is a highlyinflected language.In Lithuanian, there are twogrammatical gendersfor nouns (masculine and feminine) and three genders for adjectives, pronouns, numerals and participles (masculine, feminine and neuter). Every attribute must agree with the gender and number of the noun. The neuter forms of other parts of speech are used with asubjectof an undefined gender (a pronoun, an infinitive etc.).

There are twelvenounand fiveadjectivedeclensionsand one (masculine and feminine) participle declension.[138]

Nouns and other parts of nominal morphology are declined in sevencases:nominative,genitive,dative,accusative,instrumental,locative(inessive), andvocative.In older Lithuanian texts, three additional varieties of the locative case are found:illative,adessiveandallative.The most common are theillative,which is still used, mostly in spoken language, and theallative,which survives in the standard language in some idiomatic usages. The adessive is nearly extinct. These additional cases are probably due to the influence ofUralic languages,with which Baltic languages have had a longstanding contact. (Uralic languages possess a great variety of noun cases, a number of which are specialised locative cases.)

Lithuanian verbal morphology shows a number of innovations; namely, the loss of synthetic passive (which is hypothesized based on other archaic Indo-European languages, such as Greek and Latin),synthetic perfect(formed by means of reduplication) andaorist;formingsubjunctiveandimperativewith the use of suffixes plus flexions as opposed to solely flections in, e.g.,Ancient Greek;loss of theoptative mood;merging and disappearing of the -t- and -nt- markers for the third-person singular and plural, respectively (this, however, occurs in Latvian and Old Prussian as well and may indicate a collective feature of all Baltic languages).

On the other hand, Lithuanian verbal morphology retains a number of archaic features absent from most modern Indo-European languages (but shared with Latvian). This includes the synthetic form of the future tense with the help of the -s- suffix and three principal verbal forms with the present tense stem employing the -n- and -st- infixes.

There are threeverbalconjugations.The verbbūtiis the onlyauxiliary verbin the language. Together withparticiples,it is used to form dozens of compound forms.

In theactive voice,each verb can be inflected for any of the followingmoods:

  1. Indicative
  2. Indirect
  3. Imperative
  4. Conditional/subjunctive

In theindicative moodand indirect moods, all verbs can have eleventenses:

  1. simple:present(e.g.,nešu'I carry'),past(nešiau),past iterative(nešdavau) andfuture(nešiu)
  2. compound:
    1. present perfect (esu nešęs), past perfect (buvau nešęs), past iterative perfect (būdavau nešęs), future perfect (būsiu nešęs)
    2. pastinchoative(buvau benešąs), past iterative inchoative (būdavau benešąs), future inchoative (būsiu benešąs)

Theindirect mood,used only in written narrative speech, has the same tenses corresponding to the appropriate active participle in nominative case; e.g., the past of the indirect mood would benešęs,while the past iterative inchoative of the indirect mood would bebūdavęs benešąs.Since it is a nominal form, this mood cannot be conjugated but must match the subject's number and gender.

Thesubjunctive(orconditional) and theimperative moodshave three tenses. Subjunctive: present (neščiau), past (būčiau nešęs), inchoative (būčiau benešąs); imperative: present (nešk), perfect (būk nešęs) and inchoative (būk benešąs).

Theinfinitivehas only one form (nešti). These forms, except the infinitive and indirect mood, are conjugative, having two singular, two plural persons, and the third person form common both for plural and singular.

In thepassive voice,the form number is not as rich as in the active voice. There are two types of passive voice in Lithuanian: present participle (type I) and past participle (type II) (in the examples below types I and II are separated with a slash). They both have the same moods and tenses:

  1. Indicative mood:present(esu nešamas/neštas),past(buvau nešamas/neštas),past iterative(būdavau nešamas/neštas) andfuture(būsiu nešamas/neštas)
  2. Indirect mood:present(esąs nešamas/neštas),past(buvęs nešamas/neštas),past iterative(būdavęs nešamas/neštas) andfuture(būsiąs nešamas/neštas).
  3. Imperative mood: present (type I only:būk nešamas), past (type II only:būk neštas).
  4. Subjunctive / conditional mood: present (type I only:būčiau nešamas), past (type II only:būčiau neštas).

Lithuanian has the richestparticiplesystem of all Indo-European languages, having participles derived from all simple tenses with distinct active and passive forms, and two gerund forms.

In practical terms, the rich overall inflectional system makes the word order have a different meaning than in moreanalytic languagessuch as English. The English phrase "acar is coming "translates as" atvažiuoja automobilis "(thethemefirst), while "thecar is coming "–" automobilis atvažiuoja "(the theme first; word order inversion).

Lithuanian also has a very rich word derivation system and an array of diminutive suffixes.

Today there are two definitive books on Lithuanian grammar: one in English, theIntroduction to Modern Lithuanian(calledBeginner's Lithuanianin its newer editions) byLeonardas Dambriūnas,Antanas KlimasandWilliam R. Schmalstieg;and another in Russian,Vytautas Ambrazas'Грамматика литовского языка(Lithuanian Grammar). Another recent book on Lithuanian grammar is the second edition ofReview of Modern Lithuanian Grammarby Edmund Remys, published by Lithuanian Research and Studies Center, Chicago, 2003.

Vocabulary

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Great Lithuanian Dictionaryconsists of 20 volumes and contains more than half a millionheadwords.
Page from the Lithuanian primerNaujas moksłas skaytima diel maźū waykū Źemaycziu yr Lietuwosillustrating the lettersD,EandG

Indo-European vocabulary

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Lithuanian retainscognatesto many words found in classical languages, such asSanskritandLatin.These words are descended fromProto-Indo-European.A few examples are the following:

  • Lith.sūnusand Skt.sūnu(son)
  • Lith.avisand Skt.aviand Lat.ovis(sheep)
  • Lith.dūmasand Skt.dhūmaand Lat.fumus(fumes, smoke)
  • Lith.antrasand Skt.antara(second, the other)
  • Lith.vilkasand Skt.vṛka(wolf)
  • Lith.ratasand Lat.rota(wheel) and Skt.ratha(carriage)
  • Lith.senisand Lat.senex(an old man) and Skt.sanas(old)
  • Lith.vyrasand Lat.vir(a man) and Skt.vīra(man)
  • Lith.angisand Lat.anguis(a snake in Latin, a species of snakes in Lithuanian)
  • Lith.linasand Lat.linum(flax, compare with English 'linen')
  • Lith.ariuand Lat.aro(I plow)
  • Lith.jungiuand Lat.iungo,and Skt.yuñje(mid.), (I join)
  • Lith.gentysand Lat.gentesand Skt.játi(tribes)
  • Lith.mėnesisand Lat.mensisand Skt.masa(month)
  • Lith.dantisand Lat.densand Skt.danta(tooth)
  • Lith.naktisand Lat.noctes(plural ofnox) and Skt.naktam(night)
  • Lith.ugnisand Lat.ignisand Skt.agni(fire)
  • Lith.sėdimeand Lat.sedemusand Skt.sīdama(we sit)

This even extends to grammar, where for example Latin noun declensions ending in-umoften correspond to Lithuanian-ų,with theLatinandLithuanian fourth declensionsbeing particularly close. Many of the words from this list are similar to other Indo-European languages, including English and Russian. The contribution of Lithuanian was influential in the reconstruction ofProto-Indo-European.

Lexical and grammatical similarities between Baltic andSlavic languagessuggest an affinity between these two language groups. On the other hand, there exist a number of Baltic (particularly Lithuanian) words without counterparts in Slavic languages, but which are similar to words in Sanskrit or Latin. The history of the relationship between Baltic and Slavic languages, and our understanding of the affinity between the two groups, remain in dispute (see:Balto-Slavic languages).

Loanwords

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In a 1934 book entitledDie Germanismen des Litauischen. Teil I: Die deutschen Lehnwörter im Litauischen,K. Alminauskis found 2,770 loanwords, of which about 130 were of uncertain origin. The majority of the loanwords were found to have been derived fromPolish,Belarusian,andGerman,with some evidence that these languages all acquired the words from contacts and trade withPrussiaduring the era of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania.[139]Loanwords comprised about 20% of the vocabulary used in the first book printed in Lithuanian in 1547,Martynas Mažvydas'sCatechism.[140]But as a result of language preservation and purging policies, Slavic loanwords currently constitute only 1.5% of the Standard Lithuanian lexicon, while German loanwords constitute only 0.5% of it.[141]The majority of loanwords in the 20th century arrived fromRussian.[142]

Towards the end of the 20th century, a number of words and expressions related to new technologies and telecommunications were borrowed fromEnglish.The Lithuanian government has an established language policy that encourages the development of equivalent vocabulary to replace loanwords.[143]However, despite the government's best efforts to avoid the use of loanwords in Lithuanian, many English words have become accepted and are now included in Lithuanian language dictionaries.[144][145]In particular, words having to do with new technologies have permeated the Lithuanian vernacular, including such words as:

Other common foreign words have also been adopted by Lithuanian. Some of these include:

These words have been modified to suit the grammatical and phonetic requirements of Lithuanian, mostly by adding -as ending, but their foreign roots are obvious.

Old Lithuanian

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The earliest known Lithuanian glosses (~1520–1530) written in the margins ofJohannes Herolt's bookLiber Discipuli de eruditione Christifidelium.Left: wordßch[ÿ]kſtu[m]aſ(parsimony); Right: wordsteprÿdav[ſ]ʒÿ(let it strike) andvbagÿſte(indigence).
Catechismof Martynas Mažvydas,the first printed book in Lithuanian. It was printed on 8 January 1547 byHans WeinreichinKönigsberg.
Panegyric toSigismund III Vasa,visiting capitalVilnius,first hexameter in Lithuanian language, 1589.
An example of a text in Old Lithuanian – amanifestoof theVilnius Uprising of 1794against theRussian Partition,originally issued and distributed in the Lithuanian capital Vilnius in spring of 1794.
Old Lithuanian edition of theConstitution of 3 May 1791.

The language of the earliest Lithuanian writings, in the 16th and 17th centuries, is known asOld Lithuanianand differs in some significant respects from the Lithuanian of today.

Besides the specific differences given below, nouns, verbs, and adjectives still had separate endings for thedual number.The dual persists today in some dialects. Example:

Case "two good friends"
Nom-Acc dù gerù draugù
Dat dvı̇́em gerı̇́em draugám
Inst dviẽm geriẽm draugam̃

Pronunciation

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The vowels writteną, ę, į, ųwere still pronounced as longnasal vowels,[146]not as long oral vowels as in today's Lithuanian.

The original Baltic longāwas still retained as such, e.g.bralis'brother' (modernbrólis).

Nouns

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Compared to modern Lithuanian, there were three additional cases. The originallocative casehad been replaced by four so-calledpostpositivecases, theinessive case,illative case,adessive caseandallative case,which correspond to the prepositions "in", "into", "at" and "towards", respectively. They were formed by affixing apostpositionto one of the previous cases:

  • The inessive added*-en>-eto the original locative in singular and to the accusative in plural.
  • The illative added*-nā>-n(a)to the accusative.
  • The adessive added*-pie>-p(i)to the original locative in singular and to the inessive in plural.
  • The allative added*-pie>-p(i)to the genitive.

The inessive has become the modern locative case, while the other three have disappeared. Note, however, that the illative case is still used occasionally in the colloquial language (mostly in the singular):Lietuvon'to Lithuania',miestan'to the city'. This form is relatively productive: for instance, it is not uncommon to hear "skrendame Niujorkan(we are flying to New York) ". There are some words still used in adessive case: esu" namie "(could be equally substituted with" namuose ") I'm 'at home'.

The uncontracted dative plural-muswas still common.

Adjectives

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Adjectives could belong to all four accent classes in Old Lithuanian (now they can only belong to classes 3 and 4).

Additional remnants of i-stem adjectives still existed, e.g.:

  • loc. sg.didimè pulkè'in the big crowd' (nowdidžiame)
  • loc. sg.gerèsnime'better' (nowgeresniamè)
  • loc. sg.mažiáusime'smallest' (nowmažiáusiame)

Additional remnants of u-stem adjectives still existed, e.g.rūgštùs'sour':

Case Newer Older
Inst sg rūgščiù rūgštumı̇̀
Loc sg rūgščiamè rūgštumè
Gen pl rūgščių̃ rūgštų̃
Acc pl rū́gščius rū́gštus
Inst pl rūgščiaı̇̃s rūgštumı̇̀s

No u-stem remnants existed in the dative singular and locative plural.

Definite adjectives, originally involving a pronoun suffixed to an adjective, had not merged into a single word in Old Lithuanian. Examples:

  • pa-jo-prasto'ordinary' (nowpàprastojo)
  • nu-jie-vargę'tired' (nownuvar̃gusieji)

Verbs

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TheProto-Indo-Europeanclass ofathematic verbsstill existed in Old Lithuanian:

'be' 'remain' 'give' 'save'
1st sg esmı̇̀ liekmı̇̀ dúomi gélbmi
2nd sg esı̇̀ lieksı̇̀ dúosi gélbsi
3rd sg ẽst(i) liẽkt(i) dúost(i) gélbt(i)
1st dual esvà liekvà dúova gélbva
2nd dual està liektà dúosta gélbta
1st pl esmè liekmè dúome gélbme
2nd pl estè liektè dúoste gélbte
3rd pl ẽsti liẽkt(i) dúost(i) gélbt(i)

Theoptative mood(i.e. the third-person imperative) still had its own endings,-aifor third-conjugation verbs and-iefor other verbs, instead of using regular third-person present endings.

Syntax

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Word order was freer in Old Lithuanian. For example, a noun in thegenitive casecould either precede or follow the noun it modifies.

Further reading

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  • Bakšienė, Rima; Čepaitienė, Agnė; Jaroslavienė, Jurgita; Urbanavičienė, Jolita (2023)."Standard Lithuanian".Illustrations of the IPA.Journal of the International Phonetic Association:1–31.doi:10.1017/S0025100323000105,with supplementary sound recordings.

See also

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Citations

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  1. ^Lithuanian languageatEthnologue(19th ed., 2016)
  2. ^Rodiklių duomenų bazė."Oficialiosios statistikos portalas".osp.stat.gov.lt(in Lithuanian).
  3. ^Zinkevičius, Z. (1993).Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar[Eastern Lithuania in the Past and Now] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius:Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.p. 9.ISBN5-420-01085-2....linguist generally accepted that Lithuanian is the most archaic among living Indo-European languages...
  4. ^"Lithuanian Language".Encyclopedia Britannica.
  5. ^Bonifacas, Stundžia (20 November 2021)."How did Vytautas the Great speak and would we manage to have a conversation with VI century Lithuanians?".15min.Retrieved20 November2021.
  6. ^"Ever wanted to travel back in time? Talk to a Lithuanian!".Terminology Coordination Unit of the European Parliament.19 August 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 13 October 2014.Retrieved16 August2021.
  7. ^Smalstieg, William (1982)."The Origin of the Lithuanian Language".Lituanus.28(1).Retrieved7 August2016– via lituanus.org.
  8. ^"Lithuanian Language".Encyclopedia Britannica.
  9. ^abcdefghZinkevičius, Zigmas."Lietuvių kalbos kilmė"[The Origin of the Lithuanian Language].Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija(in Lithuanian).Retrieved21 January2023.
  10. ^Patackas, Algirdas."Apie galindus, baltų gentį, ir jų kelionę į vakarus, pasaulio pakraštį (nuotraukos)".lrytas.lt(in Lithuanian).Retrieved22 January2023.
  11. ^"Baltų kalbos ir tautos".Aidai.eu(in Lithuanian).Retrieved22 January2023.
  12. ^Girdenis, Aleksas; Mažiulis, Vytautas (1994)."Baltų kalbų divergencinė chronologija".Baltistica(in Lithuanian).27(2): 10.doi:10.15388/baltistica.27.2.204.
  13. ^Novotná, Petra; Blažek, Václav (2007)."Glottochronology and Its Application on the Balto-Slavic Languages".Baltistica.42(3): 208–209.doi:10.15388/baltistica.42.3.1178.
  14. ^abc"History".Balticlanguage.space.Retrieved22 January2023.
  15. ^Ramat, Anna Giacalone;Ramat, Paolo (1998). "The Baltic Languages".The Indo-European Languages.Routledge. pp. 454–479.ISBN9781134921867.OCLC908192063.
  16. ^"Latvia".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved22 January2023.
  17. ^Taylor, Isaac(1892).The Origin of the Aryans: An Account of the Prehistoric Ethnology and Civilisation of Europe.The Contemporary Science (2nd ed.). London: 24 Warwick Lane,Paternoster Row.p. 261.
  18. ^Chapman, Siobhan; Routledge, Christopher, eds. (2005).Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language.Oxford University Press. p. 124.ISBN9780195187687.
  19. ^Joseph, John E. (2009)."Why Lithuanian Accentuation Mattered to Saussure"(PDF).Language & History.52(2): 182–198.doi:10.1179/175975309X452067.S2CID144780177.Retrieved1 April2018– via lel.ed.ac.uk.
  20. ^Sabaliauskas, Algirdas (2007)."Remembering Vladimir Toporov".Lituanus.53(2). Archived fromthe originalon 24 February 2021.Retrieved4 April2018– via lituanus.org.
  21. ^"Jan Safarewicz".Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija(in Lithuanian).Retrieved21 January2023.
  22. ^Smalstieg, William (1982)."The Origin of the Lithuanian Language".Lituanus.28(1). Archived fromthe originalon 11 November 2020.Retrieved7 August2016– via lituanus.org.
  23. ^abcdefghijkZinkevičius, Zigmas."Lietuvių rašomoji kalba".Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija(in Lithuanian).Retrieved15 January2023.
  24. ^Antanavičius, Darius; Baronas, Darius; Dubonis, Artūras; Petrauskas, Rimvydas (2005).Mindaugo knyga. Istorijos šaltiniai apie Lietuvos karalių.Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos instituto leidykla. p. 97.ISBN9986780683.
  25. ^"Tarp Europos kalbų U. Richentalis paminėjo ir Lingwa Lietowia – lietuvių kalbą"(PDF).Lietuvos bajoras(in Lithuanian) (21): 22. 2015.Retrieved17 January2023.
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General sources

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