Wikipedia

Fever

(Redirected fromLow-grade fever)
Not to be confused withhyperthermia.For other uses, seeFever (disambiguation).

Feverorpyrexiain humans is a symptom of organism's anti-infection defense mechanism that appears withbody temperatureexceeding the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperatureset pointin thehypothalamus.[5][6][12][7]There is no single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature: sources use values ranging between 37.2 and 38.3 °C (99.0 and 100.9 °F) in humans.[1][7][8]

Fever
Other namesPyrexia, febrile response, febrile[1]
Person with fever
SpecialtyInfectious disease,pediatrics
SymptomsInitially:shivering,feelingcold,chills[2]
Later:flushed,sweating[3]
ComplicationsFebrile seizure[4]
CausesVirus,bacteria,increase in the body's temperatureset point[5][6]
Diagnostic methodTemperature higher than the normal range of 37.2 and 38.3 °C (99.0 and 100.9 °F)[1][7][8]
Differential diagnosisHyperthermia[1]
TreatmentBased on underlying cause, not required for fever itself[2][9]
MedicationIbuprofen,paracetamol(acetaminophen)[9][10]
FrequencyCommon[2][11]

The increase in set point triggers increasedmuscle contractionsand causes a feeling ofcoldorchills.[2]This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat.[3]When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomesflushed,and may begin tosweat.[3]Rarely a fever may trigger afebrile seizure,with this being more common in young children.[4]Fevers do not typically go higher than 41 to 42 °C (106 to 108 °F).[6]

A fever can be caused by manymedical conditionsranging from non-serious tolife-threatening.[13]This includesviral,bacterial,andparasitic infections—such asinfluenza,thecommon cold,meningitis,urinary tract infections,appendicitis,Lassa fever,COVID-19,andmalaria.[13][14]Non-infectious causes includevasculitis,deep vein thrombosis,connective tissue disease,side effects of medication or vaccination, andcancer.[13][15]It differs fromhyperthermia,in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enoughheat loss.[1]

Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required.[2][9]Treatment of associated pain and inflammation, however, may be useful and help a person rest.[9]Medications such asibuprofenorparacetamol(acetaminophen) may help with this as well as lower temperature.[9][10]Children younger than three months require medical attention, as might people with serious medical problems such as acompromised immune systemor people with other symptoms.[16]Hyperthermiarequires treatment.[2]

Fever is one of the most commonmedical signs.[2]It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children[2]and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick.[11]While fever evolved as a defense mechanism,treating a feverdoes not appear to improve or worsen outcomes.[17][18][19]Fever is often viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than is usually deserved, a phenomenon known as "fever phobia."[2][20]

Associated symptoms

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A fever is usually accompanied bysickness behavior,which consists oflethargy,depression,loss of appetite,sleepiness,hyperalgesia,dehydration,[21][22]and the inability to concentrate. Sleeping with a fever can often cause intense or confusingnightmares,commonly called "fever dreams".[23]Mild to severedelirium(which can also causehallucinations) may also present itself during high fevers.[24]

Diagnosis

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A range fornormal temperatureshas been found.[8]Central temperatures, such as rectal temperatures, are more accurate than peripheral temperatures.[30] Fever is generally agreed to be present if the elevated temperature[31]is caused by a raised set point and:

  • Temperature in theanus(rectum/rectal) is at or over 37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F).[1][8]Anear(tympanic) orforehead(temporal) temperature may also be used.[32][33]
  • Temperature in the mouth (oral) is at or over 37.2 °C (99.0 °F) in the morning or over 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) in the afternoon[7][34]
  • Temperature under the arm (axillary) is usually about 0.6 °C (1.1 °F) below core body temperature.[35]

In adults, thenormal rangeof oral temperatures in healthy individuals is 35.7–37.7 °C (96.3–99.9 °F) among men and 33.2–38.1 °C (91.8–100.6 °F) among women, while when taken rectally it is 36.7–37.5 °C (98.1–99.5 °F) among men and 36.8–37.1 °C (98.2–98.8 °F) among women, and forearmeasurement it is 35.5–37.5 °C (95.9–99.5 °F) among men and 35.7–37.5 °C (96.3–99.5 °F) among women.[36]

Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more.[37][38]Normal daily temperature variation has been described as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F).[7]: 4012 A raised temperature is not always a fever.[37]For example, the temperature rises in healthy people when they exercise, but this is not considered a fever, as the set point is normal.[37]On the other hand, a "normal" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person; for example,medically frailelderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a "normal" temperature of 37.3 °C (99.1 °F) may represent a clinically significant fever.[37][39]

Hyperthermia

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Hyperthermiais an elevation of body temperature over the temperature set point, due to either too much heat production or not enoughheat loss.[1][7]Hyperthermia is thus not considered fever.[7]: 103 [40]Hyperthermia should not be confused withhyperpyrexia(which is a very high fever).[7]: 102 

Clinically, it is important to distinguish between fever and hyperthermia as hyperthermia may quickly lead to death and does not respond to antipyretic medications. The distinction may however be difficult to make in an emergency setting, and is often established by identifying possible causes.[7]: 103 

Types

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Different fever patterns observed inPlasmodiuminfections

Various patterns of measured patient temperatures have been observed, some of which may be indicative of a particularmedical diagnosis:

Among the types of intermittent fever are ones specific to cases of malaria caused by different pathogens. These are:[48][49]

In addition, there is disagreement regarding whether a specific fever pattern is associated withHodgkin's lymphoma—thePel–Ebstein fever,with patients argued to present high temperature for one week, followed by low for the next week, and so on, where the generality of this pattern is debated.[52][53]

Persistent fever that cannot be explained after repeated routine clinical inquiries is calledfever of unknown origin.[7][54]Aneutropenic fever,also called febrile neutropenia, is a fever in the absence of normal immune system function.[55]Because of the lack of infection-fightingneutrophils,a bacterial infection can spread rapidly; this fever is, therefore, usually considered to require urgent medical attention.[56]This kind of fever is more commonly seen in people receiving immune-suppressingchemotherapythan in apparently healthy people.[55][57]

Hyperpyrexia

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Hyperpyrexia is an extreme elevation ofbody temperaturewhich, depending upon the source, is classified as acore body temperaturegreater than or equal to 40 or 41 °C (104 or 106 °F); the range of hyperpyrexia includes cases considered severe (≥ 40 °C) and extreme (≥ 42 °C).[7][58][59]It differs fromhyperthermiain that one'sthermoregulatory system's set pointfor body temperature is set above normal, then heat is generated to achieve it. In contrast, hyperthermia involves body temperature rising above itsset pointdue to outside factors.[7][60]The high temperatures of hyperpyrexia are consideredmedical emergencies,as they may indicate a serious underlying condition or lead to severe morbidity (including permanentbrain damage), or to death.[61]A common cause of hyperpyrexia is anintracranial hemorrhage.[7]Other causes in emergency room settings includesepsis,Kawasaki syndrome,[62]neuroleptic malignant syndrome,drug overdose,serotonin syndrome,andthyroid storm.[61]

Differential diagnosis

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Fever is a commonsymptomof many medical conditions:

Adult and pediatric manifestations for the same disease may differ; for instance, inCOVID-19,one metastudy describes 92.8% of adults versus 43.9% of children presenting with fever.[14]

In addition, fever can result from a reaction to an incompatible blood product.[75]

Function

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Hyperthermia: Characterized on the left. Normal body temperature (thermoregulatory set point) is shown in green, while the hyperthermic temperature is shown in red. As can be seen, hyperthermia can be conceptualized as an increase above the thermoregulatory set point.
Hypothermia: Characterized in the center: Normal body temperature is shown in green, while the hypothermic temperature is shown in blue. As can be seen, hypothermia can be conceptualized as a decrease below the thermoregulatory set point.
Fever: Characterized on the right: Normal body temperature is shown in green. It reads "New Normal" because the thermoregulatory set point has risen. This has caused what was the normal body temperature (in blue) to be considered hypothermic.

Immune function

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Fever is thought to contribute to host defense,[17]as the reproduction ofpathogenswith strict temperature requirements can be hindered, and the rates of some important immunological reactions are increased by temperature.[76]Fever has been described in teaching texts as assisting the healing process in various ways, including:

Advantages and disadvantages

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A fever response to an infectious disease is generally regarded as protective, whereas fever in non-infections may be maladaptive.[79][80]Studies have not been consistent on whether treating fever generally worsens or improves mortality risk.[81]Benefits or harms may depend on the type of infection, health status of the patient and other factors.[79]Studies usingwarm-bloodedvertebratessuggest that they recover more rapidly from infections or critical illness due to fever.[82]Insepsis,fever is associated with reduced mortality.[83]

Pathophysiology of fever induction

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See also:Thermoregulation in humans

Hypothalamus

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Temperature is regulated in thehypothalamus.The trigger of a fever, called a pyrogen, results in the release ofprostaglandin E2(PGE2). PGE2 in turn acts on the hypothalamus, which creates a systemic response in the body, causing heat-generating effects to match a new higher temperature set point. There are four receptors in which PGE2 can bind (EP1-4), with a previous study showing the EP3 subtype is what mediates the fever response.[84]Hence, the hypothalamus can be seen as working like athermostat.[7]When the set point is raised, the body increases its temperature through both active generation of heat and retention of heat. Peripheralvasoconstrictionboth reduces heat loss through the skin and causes the person to feel cold.Norepinephrineincreasesthermogenesisinbrown adipose tissue,and muscle contraction through shivering raises themetabolic rate.[85]

If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new set point in the hypothalamus, the brain orchestrates heat effector mechanisms via theautonomic nervous systemor primary motor center for shivering. These may be:[86]

When the hypothalamic set point moves back to baseline—either spontaneously or via medication—normal functions such as sweating, and the reverse of the foregoing processes (e.g., vasodilation, end of shivering, and nonshivering heat production) are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.[citation needed]

This contrasts withhyperthermia,in which the normal setting remains, and the body overheats through undesirable retention of excess heat or over-production of heat. Hyperthermia is usually the result of an excessively hot environment (heat stroke) or an adverse reaction to drugs. Fever can be differentiated from hyperthermia by the circumstances surrounding it and its response toanti-pyreticmedications.[7][verification needed]

In infants, the autonomic nervous system may also activatebrown adipose tissueto produce heat (non-shivering thermogenesis).[87]

Increased heart rate and vasoconstriction contribute to increasedblood pressurein fever.[88]

Pyrogens

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A pyrogen is a substance that induces fever.[89]In the presence of an infectious agent, such as bacteria, viruses, viroids,etc., the immune response of the body is to inhibit their growth and eliminate them. The most common pyrogens are endotoxins, which arelipopolysaccharides(LPS) produced byGram-negative bacteriasuch asE. coli.But pyrogens include non-endotoxic substances (derived from microorganisms other than gram-negative-bacteria or from chemical substances) as well.[90]The types of pyrogens include internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) to the body.[91]

The "pyrogenicity" of given pyrogens varies: in extreme cases, bacterial pyrogens can act assuperantigensand cause rapid and dangerous fevers.[92]

Endogenous

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Endogenous pyrogens arecytokinesreleased frommonocytes(which are part of theimmune system).[93]In general, they stimulate chemical responses, often in the presence of anantigen,leading to a fever. Whilst they can be a product of external factors like exogenous pyrogens, they can also be induced by internal factors likedamage associated molecular patternssuch as cases likerheumatoid arthritisor lupus.[94]

Major endogenous pyrogens areinterleukin 1(α and β)[95]: 1237–1248 andinterleukin 6(IL-6).[96]Minor endogenous pyrogens includeinterleukin-8,tumor necrosis factor-β,macrophage inflammatory protein-α and macrophage inflammatory protein-β as well asinterferon-α,interferon-β,andinterferon-γ.[95]: 1237–1248 Tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF) also acts as a pyrogen, mediated byinterleukin 1(IL-1) release.[97]These cytokine factors are released into general circulation, where they migrate to the brain'scircumventricular organswhere they are more easily absorbed than in areas protected by theblood–brain barrier.[98]The cytokines then bind toendothelial receptorson vessel walls to receptors onmicroglial cells,resulting in activation of thearachidonic acid pathway.[99]

Of these, IL-1β, TNF, and IL-6 are able to raise the temperature setpoint of an organism and cause fever. These proteins produce acyclooxygenasewhich induces the hypothalamic production of PGE2 which then stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such ascyclic adenosine monophosphateand increases body temperature.[100]

Exogenous

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Exogenous pyrogens are external to the body and are of microbial origin. In general, these pyrogens, including bacterial cell wall products, may act on Toll-like receptors in the hypothalamus and elevate the thermoregulatory setpoint.[101]

An example of a class of exogenous pyrogens are bacteriallipopolysaccharides(LPS) present in the cell wall ofgram-negative bacteria.According to one mechanism of pyrogen action, an immune system protein,lipopolysaccharide-binding protein(LBP), binds to LPS, and the LBP–LPS complex then binds to aCD14receptor on amacrophage.The LBP-LPS binding to CD14 results in cellular synthesis and release of various endogenouscytokines,e.g., interleukin 1 (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα). A further downstream event is activation of thearachidonic acid pathway.[102]

PGE2 release

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PGE2 release comes from thearachidonic acidpathway. This pathway (as it relates to fever), is mediated by theenzymesphospholipase A2(PLA2),cyclooxygenase-2(COX-2), andprostaglandin E2 synthase.These enzymes ultimately mediate the synthesis and release of PGE2.[citation needed]

PGE2 is the ultimate mediator of the febrile response. The setpoint temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present. PGE2 acts on neurons in thepreoptic area(POA) through theprostaglandin E receptor 3(EP3). EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate thedorsomedial hypothalamus(DMH), the rostralraphepallidus nucleus in themedulla oblongata(rRPa), and theparaventricular nucleus(PVN) of the hypothalamus. Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of thesympatheticoutput system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface. It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involvingpituitary glandand variousendocrine organs.[citation needed]

Management

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Fever does not necessarily need to be treated,[103]and most people with a fever recover without specific medical attention.[104]Although it is unpleasant, fever rarely rises to a dangerous level even if untreated.[105]Damage to the brain generally does not occur until temperatures reach 42.0 °C (107.6 °F), and it is rare for an untreated fever to exceed 40.6 °C (105.1 °F).[106]Treating fever in people withsepsisdoes not affect outcomes.[107]Small trials have shown no benefit of treating fevers of 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) or higher of critically ill patients in ICUs, and one trial was terminated early because patients receiving aggressive fever treatment were dying more often.[19]

According to the NIH, the two assumptions which are generally used to argue in favor of treating fevers have not been experimentally validated. These are that (1) a fever is noxious, and (2) suppression of a fever will reduce its noxious effect. Most of the other studies supporting the association of fever with poorer outcomes have been observational in nature. In theory, these critically ill patients and those faced with additional physiologic stress may benefit from fever reduction, but the evidence on both sides of the argument appears to be mostly equivocal.[19]

Conservative measures

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Limited evidence supports sponging or bathing feverish children with tepid water.[108]The use of afanor air conditioning may somewhat reduce the temperature and increase comfort. If the temperature reaches the extremely high level ofhyperpyrexia,aggressive cooling is required (generally produced mechanically viaconductionby applying numerous ice packs across most of the body or direct submersion inice water).[61]In general, people are advised to keep adequately hydrated.[109]Whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illnesses such as thecommon coldis not known.[110]

Medications

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Medications that lower fevers are calledantipyretics.[111]The antipyreticibuprofenis effective in reducing fevers in children.[112]It is more effective thanacetaminophen(paracetamol) in children.[112]Ibuprofen and acetaminophen may be safely used together in children with fevers.[113][114]The efficacy of acetaminophen by itself in children with fevers has been questioned.[115]Ibuprofen is also superior toaspirinin children with fevers.[116]Additionally,aspirinis not recommended in children and young adults (those under the age of 16 or 19 depending on the country) due to the risk ofReye's syndrome.[117]

Using both paracetamol and ibuprofen at the same time or alternating between the two is more effective at decreasing fever than using only paracetamol or ibuprofen.[118]It is not clear if it increases child comfort.[118]Response or nonresponse to medications does not predict whether or not a child has a serious illness.[119]

With respect to the effect of antipyretics on the risk of death in those with infection, studies have found mixed results, as of 2019.[120]

Epidemiology

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Fever is one of the most commonmedical signs.[2]It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children,[2]and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick.[11]About 5% of people who go to an emergency room have a fever.[121]

History

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A number of types of fever were known as early as 460 BC to 370 BC whenHippocrateswas practicing medicine including that due tomalaria(tertian or every 2 days and quartan or every 3 days).[122]It also became clear around this time that fever was a symptom of disease rather than a disease in and of itself.[122]

Infections presenting with fever were a major source of mortality in humans for about 200,000 years. Until the late nineteenth century, approximately half of all humans died from infections before the age of fifteen.[123]

An older term,febricula(adiminutiveform of theLatinword for fever), was once used to refer to a low-grade fever lasting only a few days. This term fell out of use in the early 20th century, and the symptoms it referred to are now thought to have been caused mainly by various minorviralrespiratory infections.[124]

Society and culture

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Mythology

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Febris

Pediatrics

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Fever is often viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than might be deserved, a phenomenon known as fever phobia,[2][126]which is based in both caregiver's and parents' misconceptions about fever in children. Among them, many parents incorrectly believe that fever is adiseaserather than amedical sign,that even low fevers are harmful, and that any temperature even briefly or slightly above the oversimplified "normal" number marked on a thermometer is a clinically significant fever.[126]They are also afraid of harmless side effects likefebrile seizuresand dramatically overestimate the likelihood of permanent damage from typical fevers.[126]The underlying problem, according to professor of pediatrics Barton D. Schmitt, is that "as parents we tend to suspect that our children's brains may melt."[127]As a result of these misconceptions parents are anxious, give the child fever-reducing medicine when the temperature is technically normal or only slightly elevated, and interfere with the child's sleep to give the child more medicine.[126]

Other species

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Main article:Thermoregulation

Fever is an important metric for thediagnosisofdisease in domestic animals.The body temperature of animals, which is taken rectally, is different from one species to another. For example, ahorseis said to have a fever above101 °F(38.3 °C).[128]In species that allow the body to have a wide range of "normal" temperatures, such ascamels,[129]whose body temperature varies as the environmental temperature varies,[130]the body temperature which constitutes a febrile state differs depending on the environmental temperature.[131]Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever. For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5 °C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such asBeauveria bassianaandMetarhizium acridum.[132]Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasiteAscosphaera apis.[132]

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Further reading

edit
  • Rhoades R, Pflanzer RG (1996). "Chapter 27: Regulation of Body Temperature (Clinical Focus: Pathogenesis of Fever)".Human Physiology(3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders College.ISBN9780030051593.Retrieved2 April2020.
edit
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