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Madhvacharya

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This article is about the founder of a theistic philosophy. For the 1986 film, seeMadhvacharya (film).
Not to be confused withMadhavacharya.

Madhvacharya(IAST:Madhvācārya;pronounced[mɐdʱʋaːˈtɕaːrjɐ];1199–1278 CE[5]or 1238–1317 CE[6]), and also known asPurna Prajna(IAST:Pūrṇa-Prajña) andĀnanda Tīrtha,was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of theDvaita(dualism) school ofVedanta.[1][7]Madhva called his philosophyTattvavādameaning "arguments from a realist viewpoint".[7]

Madhvacharya
Idol of Madhvacharya in thePrem Mandir VrindavanTemple,
Personal
Born
Vāsudeva

c. 1199 (or 1238)[1]
Pājaka,nearUdupi[2]
Karnataka[1]
Diedc. 1278 (or 1317)
ReligionHinduism
Organization
OrderVedanta
Founder ofUdupi Sri Krishna Matha
PhilosophyTattvavada(Which later popularly came be known asDvaita Vedanta)
Religious career
GuruAchyuta-preksha[3]
Literary worksSarvamula Granthas
HonorsPūrṇa-prajña
Jagadguru
Quotation

Reality is twofold: independent and dependent things. The LordVishnuis the only independent thing.[4]

Madhvacharya was born atPajakanearUdupion the west coast ofKarnatakastate in 13th-century India.[8]As a teenager, he became aSanyasi(monk) joining Brahma-sampradayaguruAchyutapreksha, of the Ekadandi order.[1][3]Madhva studied the classics ofHindu philosophy,and wrote commentaries on thePrincipal Upanishads,theBhagavad Gitaand theBrahma Sutras(Prasthanatrayi),[1]and is credited with thirty seven works inSanskrit.[9]His writing style was of extreme brevity and condensed expression. His greatest work is considered to be theAnuvyakhyana,a philosophical supplement to hisbhasyaon theBrahma Sutrascomposed with a poetic structure.[8]In some of his works, he proclaimed himself to be an avatar ofVayu,the son of godVishnu.[10][11]

Madhvacharya was a critic ofAdi Shankara'sAdvaita VedantaandRamanuja'sVishishtadvaita Vedantateachings.[7][8]He toured India several times, visiting places such as Badrinath, Bengal, Varanasi, Dwaraka, Goa and Kanyakumari, engaging in philosophical debates and visiting Hindu centres of learning.[9]Madhva established theKrishna Mutt at Udupiwith amurtisecured fromDwarkaGujarat in 1285 CE.[8]

Madhvacharya's teachings are built on the premise that there is a fundamental difference betweenAtman(individual soul, self) and theBrahman(ultimate reality, God Vishnu), these are two different unchanging realities, with individual soul dependent on Brahman, never identical.[7]His school's theistic dualism teachings disagreed with themonist[12]teachings of the other two most influential schools of Vedanta based on Advaita's nondualism and Vishishtadvaita's qualified nondualism.[7][13]Liberation, asserted Madhva, is achievable only through the grace of God.[7] The Dvaita school founded by Madhva influencedVaishnavism,theBhakti movementin medieval India, and has been one of the three influentialVedāntaphilosophies, along with Advaita Vedanta and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta.[8][14][15]Madhva's historical influence in Hinduism, state Kulandran and Kraemer: "has been salutary, but not extensive. “

Early life

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The biography of Madhvacharya is unclear about his year of birth.[16]Many sources date him to 1238–1317 period,[14][17]but some place him about the 1199–1278 period.[16][18]

Madhvācārya was born inPajakanearUdupi,a coastal district in the present-day Indian state ofKarnataka.[19]Traditionally it is believed that his father's name is Naduillaya (Sanskrit: Madhyageha, Madhyamandira) and the name of his mother is unclear, although many sources variously claim it as Satyavati and Vedavati.[19]Born in aTulu-speakingBrahminhousehold, he was named Vāsudeva.[19]Later he became famous by the names Purnaprajna, Anandatirtha and Madhvacharya (or just Madhva).[8]Pūrnaprajña was the name given to him at the time of his initiation intosannyasa(renunciation), as a teenager.[19]The name conferred on him when he became the head of his monastery was "Ānanda Tīrtha".[19]All three of his later names are found in his works.[1]Madhvācārya or Madhva are names most commonly found in modern literature on him, or Dvaita Vedanta related literature.[8][7]

Madhva began his school after hisUpanayanaat age seven, and became amonkorSannyasiin his teens,[19]although his father was initially opposed to this.[20]He joined anAdvaita Vedantamonastery in Udupi (Karnataka),[3]accepted hisguruto be Achyutrapreksha,[16]who is also referred to as Achyutraprajna in some sources.[1]Madhva studied the Upanishads and the Advaita literature, but was unconvinced by its nondualism philosophy of oneness of human soul and god, had frequent disagreements with his guru,[19]left the monastery, and began his owntattvavadamovement based on dualism premises ofDvi– asserting that human soul and god (as Vishnu) are two different things.[16]Madhva never acknowledged Achyutrapreksha as his guru or his monastic lineage in his writings.[3]Madhva is said to have been clever in philosophy, and also to have been tall and strongly built.[21]

Career

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Madhvacharya never established amatha(monastery) dedicated to Dvaita philosophy, however his lineage of students became the sanctuary for a series of Dvaita scholars such asJayatirtha,Sripadaraja,Vyasatirtha,Vadiraja Tirtha,Raghuttama Tirtha,Raghavendra TirthaandSatyanatha Tirthawho followed in the footsteps of Madhva.[16][22]

A number of hagiographies have been written by Madhva's disciples and followers. Of these, the most referred to and most authentic is the sixteen cantos Sanskrit biographyMadhvavijayabyNarayana Panditacharya– son of Trivikrama Pandita, who himself was a disciple of Madhva.[8]

Incarnation of Vayu, the wind god

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In several of his texts, Sarma and other scholars state, "Madhvacharya proclaims himself to be the thirdavataror incarnation ofVayu,wind god, the son ofVishnu".[10][23]He, thus, asserted himself to beHanuman– the first avatar of Vayu, andBhima– a Pandava in theMahabharataand the second avatar of Vayu.[10]In one of hisbhasyaon the Brahma Sutras, he asserts that the authority of the text is from his personal encounter with Vishnu.[24]Madhva, states Sarma, believed himself to be an intermediary between Vishnu and Dvaita devotees, guiding the latter in their journey towards Vishnu.[10][11]

Miracles

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Madhva is said to have performed several miracles during his lifetime, including transformingtamarindseeds into gold coins, consuming 4,000 bananas and thirty big pots of milk in one sitting, fighting and winning against robbers and wild animals, crossing theGangeswithout getting his clothes wet, and giving light to his students through the nails of his big toes after the lamp went out while they were interpreting a text at night.[25]

Interpretations

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Madhvacharya is said to have quoted some verses from his unique revisions of scriptures. Also, he is said to have quoted many unique books likeKamatha Sruti.The interpretation of Balittha Sukta by Madhvacharya and his followers to prove that Madhvacharya was an incarnation of Vayu is considered highly unique by standard commentaries on them likeSayanaandHorace Hayman Wilson.[26]

Works of Madhvacharya

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Main article:List of works by Madhvacharya

Thirty sevenDvaita textsare attributed to Madhvacharya.[27]Of these, thirteen arebhasya(review and commentary) on earliest Principal Upanishads,[18]aMadhva-bhasyaon the foundational text of Vedanta school of Hinduism –Brahma Sutras,[18]anotherGita-bhasyaonBhagavad Gita,[18][27]a commentary on forty hymns of theRigveda,a review of theMahabharatain poetic style, a commentary calledBhagavata-tatparya-nirnayaonBhagavata Purana.[27]Apart from these, Madhva is also attributed for authoring manystotras,poems and texts onbhaktiof Vishnu and hisavatars.[7][28][29]TheAnu-Vyakhyana,a supplement to Madhvacharya's commentary on Brahma Sutras, is his masterpiece, states Sharma.[28]

While being a profusely productive writer, Madhvacharya restricted the access to and distribution of his works to outsiders who were not part of Dvaita school, according to Sarma.[note 1]However, Bartley disagrees and states that this is inconsistent with the known history of extensive medieval Vedantic debates on religious ideas in India which included Dvaita school's ideas.[30]

Madhva's philosophy

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Madhvacharya along withVedavyasaMaharshi are depicted in this portrait

The premises and foundations ofDvaita Vedanta,also known asDvaitavadaandTattvavada,are credited to Madhvacharya. His philosophy championed unqualified dualism.[27]Madhva's work is classically placed in contrast with monist[31]ideas ofShankara'sAdvaita VedantaandRamanuja'sVishishtadvaita Vedanta.[27]

Epistemology

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Madhva callsepistemologyAnu pramana.[32]It accepts threepramānas,that is three facts or three correct means of knowledge, in contrast to one ofCharvakaand six of Advaita schools of Hindu philosophies:[33][34]

  • Pratyaksha(प्रत्यक्ष) means perception. It is of two types in Dvaita and other Hindu schools: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described as that of inner sense, the mind.[35][36]
  • Anumāna(अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[37]Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example ofAnumana.This method of inference consists of three parts:pratijna(hypothesis),hetu(a reason), anddrshtanta(examples).[38][39]
  • Śabda(शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.[32][40]It is also known asAgamain Madhva's Dvaita tradition, and incorporates all theVedas.Hiriyanna explainsSabda-pramanaas a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[41]

Madhva and his followers introducedkevala-pramaanaas the "knowledge of an object as it is", separate fromanu-pramanadescribed above.[42]

Madhva's Dvaita school holds that Vishnu as a God, who is alsoHari,Krishna,VasudevaandNarayana,can only be known through the propersamanvaya(connection) andpramanaof the Vedic scriptural teachings.[43][44]Vishnu, according to Madhvacharya, is not the creator of the Vedas, but the teacher of the Vedas.[43]Madhva's school of thought assert that knowledge is intrinsically valid, and the knower and the known are independently real.[43]Madhvacharya asserted that both the ritual part (karma-kanda,Mimamsa) and the knowledge part (jnana-kanda,Upanishadic Vedanta) in the Vedas, are equally valid and an interconnected whole.[43]As asserted by theMimamsaschool of Hindu philosophy, Madhvacharya held that theVedasare author-less, and that their truth is in all of its parts (i.e. thesaṃhitas,brāhmaņas,āraņyakāsandupanișads)...[43]

Metaphysics

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Themetaphysicalreality is plural, stated Madhvacharya.[7]There are primarily twotattvasor categories of reality –svatantra tattva(independent reality) andasvatantra tattva(dependent reality).[44]Ishvara(as God Vishnu or Krishna) is the cause of the universe and the only independent reality, in Madhvacharya's view.[44]The created universe is the dependent reality, consisting ofJīva(individual souls) andJada(matter, material things).[7]Individual souls are plural, different and distinct realities.Jīvas are sentient and matter is non-sentient, according to Madhvacharya.[7][45]

Madhva further enumerates the difference between dependent and independent reality as a fivefold division (pancha-bheda) between God, souls and material things.[27]These differences are:[7][46] (1) Between material things; (2) Between material thing and soul; (3) Between material thing and God; (4) Between souls; and (5) Between soul and God.

This difference is neither temporary nor merely practical; it is an invariable and natural property of everything. Madhva calls itTaratamya(gradation in pluralism).[44]There is no object like another, according to Madhvacharya. There is no soul like another. All souls are unique, reflected in individual personalities. The sea is full; the tank is full; a pot is full; everything is full, yet each fullness is different, asserted Madhvacharya.[44][47]

Taratamyais based on inherent differences amongst all beings. These differences determine whether souls are eligible for liberation, rebirth, or darkness.[48]

According to Madhvacharya, even in liberation (moksha), the bliss is different for each person based on each's degree of knowledge and spiritual perfection.[47][45]This liberation according to him, is only achievable with grace of God Vishnu.[18]

Nature of the Brahman

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Madhva conceptualisedBrahmanas a being who enjoys His own bliss, while the entire universe evolves through a nebulous chaos.[49]He manifests, every now and then, to help the evolution process. The four primary manifestation of Him as the Brahman are, according to Madhva,Vasudeva,Pradyumna,Aniruddhaand Sankarasana, which are respectively responsible for the redemptive, creative, sustaining and destructive aspects in the universe.[49]His secondary manifestations are many, and all manifestations are at par with each other, it is the same infinite no matter how He manifests.[50]Brahman is the creator of the universe, perfect in knowledge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souls, distinct from matter.[50]For liberation, mere intellectual conceptualization of Brahman as creator is not enough, the individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and devotional surrender to Him, and only His grace leads to redemption and liberation, according to Madhva.[18][51][52]

The Vishnu as Brahman concept of Madhvacharya is a concept similar to God in major world religions.[53][54]His writings led some early colonial-eraIndologistssuch asGeorge Abraham Griersonto suggest the 13th-century Madhva was influenced byChristianity,[11]but later scholarship has rejected this theory.[18][55]

Soteriology

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Madhvacharya consideredJnana YogaandKarma Yogato be insufficient to the path of liberation withoutBhakti.[56][57]Vishnuwas the supreme God to Madhva, who can only be reached throughVayu;he further states, faith leads to the grace of God, and grace leads to the liberation of soul.[56]

The knowledge of God, for Madhvacharya, is not a matter of intellectual acceptance of the concept, but an attraction, affection, constant attachment, loving devotion and complete surrender to the grace of God.[58]He rejects monist theories believing that knowledge liberates, asserting instead that it is Divine grace through Bhakti that liberates.[59]To Madhva, God obscures reality by creatingMayaandPrakriti,which causes bondage and suffering; and only God can be the source of soul's release.[60]Liberation occurs when, with the grace of God, one knows the true nature of self and the true nature of God.[61]

Ethics

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Evil and suffering in the world, according to Madhvacharya, originates in man, and not God.[62]EveryJiva(individual soul) is the agent of actions, notJada(matter), and notIshvara(God).[63]While Madhva asserts each individual self is theKartritva(real agency), the self is not an absolutely independent agent to him.[64]This is because, states Madhva, the soul is influenced by sensory organs, one's physical body and such material things which he calls as gifts of God.[64]Man has free will, but is influenced by his innate nature, inclinations and pastkarma.[64]

Madhvacharya asserts,Yathecchasi tatha kuru,which Sharma translates and explains as "one has the right to choose between right and wrong, a choice each individual makes out of his own responsibility and his own risk".[64]Madhva does not address theproblem of evil,that is how can evil exist with that of a God who is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent.[65][66]According to Sharma, "Madhva's tripartite classification of souls makes it unnecessary to answer the problem of evil".[67]According to David Buchta, this does not address the problem of evil, because the omnipotent God "could change the system, but chooses not to" and thus sustains the evil in the world.[65]This view of self's agency of Madhvacharya was, states Buchta, an outlier in Vedanta school and Indian philosophies in general.[65]

This accusation of David Buchta is answered by the arrangement that the tripartite characteristic is intrinsic of the souls. That is to say, those characteristics define the soul. And any attempt to change that would mean replacing souls themselves. Seeing no point in repairing the prevalent characteristics if the very identity of the souls is in danger, the omnipotent does not change them. Thus answering the problem of evil.

Moral laws and ethics exist, according to Madhva, and are necessary for the grace of God and for liberation.[68]

Views on other schools

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Madhvacharya was a fierce critic of competing Vedanta schools,[69]and other schools of Indian philosophies such asBuddhismandJainism.[70][71][72]He wrote up arguments against twenty one ancient and medieval era Indian scholars to help establish the foundations of his own school of thought.[18]

Madhvacharya was most ardent critic ofAdvaita Vedanta,accusing Shankara and the Advaitins of teaching Buddhism under the cover of Vedanta.[27]Advaita's nondualism asserts that Atman (soul) and Brahman are blissful and identical, unchanging transcendent Reality, there is interconnected oneness of all souls and Brahman, with no pluralities.[7][15]Madhva, in contrast asserts that Atman (soul) and Brahman are different, onlyVishnuis the Lord (Brahman), individual souls are also distinct and depend on Vishnu, and there are pluralities.[7][15]Of all schools, Madhva directed his critique at Advaita most, penning four major texts, includingUpadhikhandanaandTattvadyota,primarily dedicated to scrutinizing Advaita.[73]

Madhvacharya disagreed with aspects ofRamanuja's Vishishtadvaita.[69]Vishishtadvaita school, a realist system of thought like Madhvacharya's Dvaita school, also asserts that Jiva (human souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are different, a difference that is never transcended.[15][74]God Vishnu alone is independent, all other gods and beings are dependent on Him, according to both Madhvacharya and Ramanuja.[52]However, in contrast to Madhvacharya's views, Vishishtadvaita school asserts "qualified non-dualism",[7]that souls share the same essential nature of Brahman,[7]and that there is a universal sameness in the quality and degree of bliss possible for human souls, and every soul can reach the bliss state of God Himself.[15][75]While the older school of Vishishtadvaita asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", states Sharma, Madhvacharya asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls".[76]

Shankara's Advaita school and Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita school are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya posited that some souls enjoy spreading chaos and irreligion, and even enjoy being eternally doomed and damned as such.[77][78][79]

Madhvacharya's style of criticism of other schools of Indian philosophy was part of the ancient and medieval Indian tradition. He was part of theVedantaschool, which emerged in post-Vedic period as the most influential of the six schools ofHindu philosophy,and his targeting of Advaita tradition, states Bryant, reflects it being the most influential of Vedanta schools.[80]

Influence

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Sri Krishna Temple,Udupi
Udupi Sri Krishna Templeestablished by Madhvacharya
Main article:Haridasa

Madhvacharya extended an independent, original philosophy in the inference ofVaishnavism.[47]

The Madhva Sampradaya fostered Bhakti and search of Knowledge. Madhvacharya and his ascetic followers propagated the Dvaita Siddhanta through their commentaries and critical lectures. Such literature and works for critical thinking were written majorly in Sanskrit and not readily accessible to common people. An alternate avenue evolved organically by Sishyas or Bhaktas of the Madhva Philosophy who studied these core books, read philosophy, practised asceticism though living a householder's life, dedicated themselves to the service of God. This set of followers undertook the mission of carrying Madhva's teaching to the four comers of the country using Kannada or the local language as a vehicle of communication. These spirited missionaries were known as theHari-Dasas.The HariDasas pioneered in breaking the shackles of caste, creed and regionalism – they practiced devotion in its purest form and were instrumental in delivering the marvels of Madhva Siddhantha to the common man by way of songs, suladees andBhakti Dasa Sahitya.These Haridasas came to be known as the Dasa Section orDasa-Kutaof the Madhva Sampradaya in contrast with the Vyaasa-Kuta who were Scholars, Pandits or teachers of literature & critical thought.[citation needed]

There is no difference between the Vyasa-kuta and Dasa-Kuta in their learning, training, or approach to philosophy. While Vyasa-Kuta being scholars, Acharyas or Pandits strongly believed in acquiring Jnaana/Knowledge traditionally, the Dasa-Kuta simplified the acquired knowledge into Bhakti or devotion. The terms 'Dasaru' and 'Vyasaru' first came into vogue at the time of Purandaradasa and his religious preceptor, Vyasaraya. Over time, 'Vyasakuta' meant the branch of devotees who were well-versed in Sanskrit and who knew the philosophy in the original, and 'Dasakuta'orDasa Dasapantha,[81]meant that branch of devotees who conveyed the meassage of Dvaita philosophy through simplified vernacularBhakti movement.[82]

Other influential subschools of Vaishnavism competed with the ideas of Madhvacharya, such as theChaitanyasubschool, whoseJiva Gosvamiasserts that only Krishna is "Svayam Bhagavan" (the supreme form of God), in contrast to Madhva who asserts that all Vishnu avatars are equal and identical, with both sharing the belief that emotional devotion to God is the means to spiritual liberation.[83]Chaitanya Mahaprabhu(1496–1534) is said to be a disciple of Isvara Puri who was a disciple of Madhavendra Puri who was a disciple of Lakshmipati Tirtha who was a disciple ofVyasatirtha(1469–1539) of Madhvacharya's Sampradaya.[84]According to Sharma, the influence of Madhva's Dvaita ideas have been most prominent on the Chaitanya school ofBengalVaishnavism,[85]and inAssam.[81]

A subsect ofGaudiya Vaishnavasfrom Orissa and West Bengal claim to be followers of Madhvacharya. Madhva established inUdupi Krishna Mathaattached to a god Krishna temple. Gaudiya Vaishnavas also worship Krishna, who is in the mode of Vrindavana.[86]

Hindu-Christian-Muslim controversies

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Madhvacharya was misperceived and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries and Hindu writers during the colonial era scholarship.[87][88]The similarities in the primacy of one God, dualism and distinction between man and God, devotion to God, the son of God as the intermediary, predestination, the role of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities in the legends of miracles inChristianityand Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these stories.[87][88]Among Christian writers, GA Grierson creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine of that faith".[89]Among Hindu writers, according to Sarma, SC Vasu creatively translated Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.[90]

Modern scholarship rules out the influence of Christianity on Madhvacharya,[11][18]as there is no evidence that there ever was a Christian settlement where Madhvacharya grew up and lived, or that there was a sharing or discussion of ideas between someone with knowledge of the Bible and Christian legends, and him.[88][91]

There are also assumptions Madhva was influenced byIslam.[92]TheMadhvavijaya[92]tells about Madhva meeting theSultan of Delhiand saying to him in fluent Persian that both worship the same one God of the universe, and that he spreads the faith in God.[93][dubious–discuss]The sultan is said to have been so impressed by this that he wanted give half of the empire to Madhva, which he refused.[94][dubious–discuss]However, the indologist and religious scholarHelmuth von Glasenappassumes thatmonotheismcan also be derived from the Indian intellectual world,[92]and that there is no reason supporting the theory that Madhva's views on afterlife were influenced by Muslim or Christian impulses.[95]

Monasteries

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Main article:Ashta Mathas of Udupi
The Entrance toSri Krishna Mathaat Udupi

Madhvacharya establishedeightmathas(monasteries) in Udupi with his eight disciples as its head along with Padmanabha Tirtha Matha. The Udupi Ashta Mathas arePalimarumatha,Adamarumatha,Krishnapura matha,Puttige matha,Shirurmatha,Sodhematha,Kaniyoorumatha andPejavaramatha.[96]These eight surround theAnantheswaraKrishnaHindu temple.[96]The matha are laid out in a rectangle, the temples on a square grid pattern.[96]The monks in the matha aresannyasis,and the tradition of their studies and succession (Paryaya system) were established by Madhvacharya.[96]The monastery has a pontiff system, that rotates after a fixed period of time. The pontiff is calledSwamiji,and he leads daily Krishna prayers according to Madhva tradition,[97]as well as annual festivals.[98]The process and Vedic mantra rituals for Krishna worship in Dvaita monasteries follow the procedure written by Madhvacharya inTantrasara.[98]The Krishna worship neither involvesbali(sacrifice) nor any fire rituals.[98]The succession ceremony in Dvaita school involves the outgoing Swamiji welcoming the incoming one, then walking together to the icon of Madhvacharya at the entrance of Krishna temple in Udupi, offering water to him, expressing reverence then handing over the same vessel with water that Madhvacharya used when he handed over the leadership of the monastery he founded.[97]The monastery include kitchens,bhojan-shala,run by monks and volunteers.[99]These serve food daily to nearly 15,000 to 20,000 monks, students and visiting pilgrims without social discrimination.[99]During succession ceremonies, over 80,000 people are served a vegetarian meal by Udupibhojan-shalas.[99]

Madhvacharya established a matha with his disciplePadmanabha Tirthaas its head to spreadTattvavada(Dvaita) outsideTulunaduregion with the instructions that his disciplesNarahari Tirtha,Madhava TirthaandAkshobhya Tirthashould, in turn, become the successors of this matha.[100][101][102][103][104]According toSurendranath Dasgupta,Uttaradi Mathis the main matha of Padmanabha Tirtha and it was divided twice, and so we end up with three mathas, the other two beingVyasaraja MathandRaghavendra Math.[105]Uttaradi Math,along withVyasaraja MathandRaghavendra Math,is considered to be the three premier apostolic institutions ofDvaita Vedantaand are jointly referred asMathatraya.[106][105][107]It is the pontiffs and pandits of theMathatrayathat have been the principle architects of post-MadhvaDvaita Vedantathrough the centuries.[108]Among the mathas outside ofTulu Naduregion, Uttaradi Matha is the largest.[109]All the mathas outside of the Tulu region are one way or the other descended fromPadmanabha Tirtha.Including mathas in Udupi, there are twenty-four Madhva mathas in India.[97]The main center of Madhva's tradition is inKarnataka.[97]

Professor Kiyokazu Okita and IndologistB. N. K. Sharmasays, Sannyasis in the lineage ofDvaita school of Vedantabelongs to Ēkadaṇḍi tradition just like the Sanyasi's ofAdvaitaofAdi Shankara.[110]

Film

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A film directed byG. V. IyertitledMadhvacharyapremiered in 1986. It is entirely in theKannadalanguage.[111][112]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Quote from Bartley: Madhvacharya, the founder, prohibited outsiders from reading certain texts and from learning from teachers. These restrictions on eligibility, it is claimed, "insulated his position from criticism and evaluation."[30]

References

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  1. ^abcdefgSharma 1962,p. xv.
  2. ^Bryant 2007,p. 357.
  3. ^abcdSheridan 1991,p. 117.
  4. ^Bryant 2007,p. 361.
  5. ^"Madhva | Hindu philosopher | Britannica".Archivedfrom the original on 21 July 2015.Retrieved9 September2018.
  6. ^Sharma 2000,p. 103.
  7. ^abcdefghijklmnopStoker 2011.
  8. ^abcdefghSharma 1962,pp. xv–xvii.
  9. ^abSharma 1962,p. xv–xvi.
  10. ^abcdSarma 2000,p. 20 with footnotes 3 and 4.
  11. ^abcdSabapathy Kulandran and Hendrik Kraemer (2004), Grace in Christianity and Hinduism, James Clarke,ISBN978-0227172360,pages 177–179
  12. ^Sharma 1962,pp. 36–37.
  13. ^Bryant 2007,pp. 315, 358–361.
  14. ^abBryant 2007,pp. 12–13, 359–361.
  15. ^abcdeStafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pages 215–224
  16. ^abcdeDehsen 1999,p. 118.
  17. ^Sharma 2000,pp. 77–78.
  18. ^abcdefghiJones & Ryan 2006,p. 266.
  19. ^abcdefgSharma 2000,pp. 79–80.
  20. ^Helmuth von Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Geistesströmungen des Ostens vol. 2, Bonn 1923, Einleitung (p. *3).
  21. ^Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Einleitung (p. *11-12).
  22. ^Stoker 2011,p. see Canonical Sources section.
  23. ^Sheridan 1991,pp. 117–118,Quote:"Madhva refers frequently to the fact that Vyasa was his guru, and that Madhva himself was the third avatara of Vayu after Hanuman and Bhima..
  24. ^Sheridan 1991,p. 118.
  25. ^Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Einleitung (p. *6-7).
  26. ^"Madhvacharya's uniqueness".gosai.com.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2021.Retrieved21 September2020.
  27. ^abcdefgSharma 1994,p. 372.
  28. ^abSharma 1962,p. xvi.
  29. ^Bryant 2007,pp. 358–361.
  30. ^abChristopher Bartley (2007), Review: Epistemologies and the Limitations of Philosophical Enquiry: Doctrine in Madhva Vedanta by Deepak Sarma, Philosophy East & West Volume 57, Number 1, pages 126–128
  31. ^Sharma 1962,p. 36-37.
  32. ^ab*Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge,ISBN978-0815336112,pages 245–248;
    • John A. Grimes,A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English,State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791430675,page 238
  33. ^Karl Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994), Epistemology, in The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 6, Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0691073842,pages 53–68
  34. ^Howard Coward et al., Epistemology, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0426-0,pages 51–62
  35. ^B Matilal (1992),Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge,Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0198239765
  36. ^Karl Potter (1977), "Meaning and Truth", inEncyclopedia of Indian Philosophies,Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0309-4,pages 160–168
  37. ^W Halbfass (1991),Tradition and Reflection,State University of New York Press,ISBN0-7914-0362-9,page 26-27
  38. ^James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing.ISBN0-8239-2287-1,page 46-47
  39. ^John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791430675,pages 41–42
  40. ^DPS Bhawuk (2011),Spirituality and Indian Psychology(Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer,ISBN978-1-4419-8109-7,page 172
  41. ^M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120813304,page 43
  42. ^John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791430675,page 238
  43. ^abcdeSharma 1994,pp. 372–373.
  44. ^abcdeBryant 2007,p. 358.
  45. ^abBryant 2007,pp. 361–363.
  46. ^James Lochtefeld (2002),Madhva,The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing.ISBN978-0823931798,page 396
  47. ^abcSharma 1994,pp. 372–375.
  48. ^Sharma, Vishal (2021). "Reading the Mahābhārata as Śāstra: The Role of the 'Righteous' Pāṇḍavas and 'Villainous' Kauravas in Madhva's Dvaitavedānta".The Journal of Hindu Studies.14(3): 279–300.
  49. ^abSharma 1962,p. 353.
  50. ^abSharma 1962,pp. 353–354.
  51. ^Sharma 1962,pp. 417–424.
  52. ^abSharma 1994,p. 373.
  53. ^Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge,ISBN978-0700712571,pages 124–127
  54. ^Sharma 1962,p. 7.
  55. ^Sarma 2000,pp. 19–21.
  56. ^abSabapathy Kulandran and Hendrik Kraemer (2004), Grace in Christianity and Hinduism, James Clarke,ISBN978-0227172360,pages 178–179
  57. ^Sharma 1962,p. 12, 135–136, 183.
  58. ^Sharma 1962,p. 417.
  59. ^Sharma 1962,pp. 418–419.
  60. ^Sharma 1962,pp. 422–423.
  61. ^Sharma 1962,pp. 423–424.
  62. ^Sharma 1962,p. 359.
  63. ^Sharma 1962,p. 360.
  64. ^abcdSharma 1962,p. 361.
  65. ^abcDavid Buchta (2014). Matthew R. Dasti and Edwin F. Bryant (ed.).Free Will, Agency, and Selfhood in Indian Philosophy.Oxford University Press. pp. 270–276.ISBN978-0199922758.
  66. ^Sharma 1962,p. 270, 370-371.
  67. ^Sharma 1962,p. 270, 370-371,Quote:The problem of evil and suffering in the world is the most difficult one in Theism. We have explained Madhva's attitude to the allied problem of freedom and freewill, on the basis of the doctrine of natural selection of good or bad and of the tripartite classification of souls. It is not therefore necessary for Madhva to answer the question of the consistency of evil with Divine goodness..
  68. ^Sharma 1962,p. 363, 368, 370–373.
  69. ^abSharma 1994,p. 11-17, 372.
  70. ^Sharma 1962,pp. 128–129, 180–181.
  71. ^Sharma 1994,p. 150-151, 372, 433–434.
  72. ^Sharma 2000,pp. 80–81.
  73. ^SMS Chari (1999), Advaita and Visistadvaita, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120815353,pages 5–7
  74. ^Edward Craig (2000), Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge,ISBN978-0415223645,pages 517–518
  75. ^Sharma 1994,pp. 373–374.
  76. ^Sharma 1994,p. 374.
  77. ^Sharma 1994,pp. 374–375.
  78. ^Bryant 2007,pp. 361–362.
  79. ^Śrī Vadirāja:Bhugola Varnanam
  80. ^Bryant 2007,pp. 13, 16 with note 2.
  81. ^abSharma 2000,pp. xxxii–xxxiii, 514–516.
  82. ^Bruno Nettl (1992), The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Routledge,ISBN978-0824049461,page 262
  83. ^Bryant 2007,pp. 381–387.
  84. ^Connection between Gaudiya and Madhva SampradayasArchived3 September 2021 at theWayback Machine(pdf)
  85. ^Sharma 1962,pp. 22–23.
  86. ^Bryant 2007,p. 360.
  87. ^abSarma 2000,pp. 19–25.
  88. ^abcSharma 2000,pp. 609–611.
  89. ^Sarma 2000,p. 20.
  90. ^Sarma 2000,pp. 22–24.
  91. ^A History of Indian Philosophy Vol 4, pg 93
  92. ^abcGlasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Einleitung (p. *28-29).
  93. ^Jeffrey Armstrong (Kavindra Rishi):"Difference is Real!". The Life and Teachings of Sri Madhva, One of India's Greatest Spiritual MastersArchived31 July 2020 at theWayback Machine,Hinduism Today,July/August/September 2008.
  94. ^Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Einleitung (p. *5-6).
  95. ^Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Einleitung (p. *34).
  96. ^abcdV Rao (2002), Living Traditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva Matha of Udupi, Orient Blackswan,ISBN978-8125022978,pages 27–32
  97. ^abcdV Rao (2002), Living Traditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva Matha of Udupi, Orient Blackswan,ISBN978-8125022978,pages 33–37
  98. ^abcV Rao (2002), Living Traditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva Matha of Udupi, Orient Blackswan,ISBN978-8125022978,page 43-49
  99. ^abcK Ray and T Srinivas (2012), Curried Cultures: Globalization, Food, and South Asia, University of California Press,ISBN978-0520270121,pages 97–98
  100. ^The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society (Bangalore)., Volume 83.The Society (Mythic Society). 1992. p. 133.In addition to the eight Mathas at Udupi, Acharya Madhwa had also founded the Uttaradi Matha with Padmanabha and Jayateertha being its Peethadhipatis in succession.
  101. ^H. Chittaranjan (1993).Karnataka State Gazetteer: Dharwad District (including Gadag and Haveri Districts).Office of the Chief Editor, Karnataka Gazetteer. p. 123.Saint Padmanabha Tirtha was given deeksha by Madhvacharya himself to spread the Dwaita school of thought in northern Karnataka region. Since the Swamiji spread the Dwaita philosophy in the northern parts of Karnataka, the Mutt established there gained the name Uttaradi Mutt.
  102. ^Vivek Ranjan Bhattacharya (1982).Famous Indian Sages, Their Immortal Messages, Volume 1.Sagar Publications. p. 340.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2024.Retrieved25 November2021.Madhvacharya was the historical founder and the supreme head of the Uttaradimath – the fountain head of the Dwaita philosophy.
  103. ^Arch. Series, Issue 69.Government of Andhra Pradesh, Department of Archaeology. 1960. p. 267.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2024.Retrieved10 October2022.The Acārya himself started Matha for the propagation of his system and it became famous as the Uttarādi Matha.
  104. ^Vasudha Dalmia;Heinrich von Stietencron(2009).The Oxford India Hinduism Reader.Oxford University Press. p. 161.ISBN9780198062462.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2024.Retrieved10 October2022.Uttarādimatha, the largest single matha, to which most of the Mādhvas in Maharashtra and in eastern and northern Karnataka adhere.
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  107. ^Sharma 2000,p. 193.
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