Wikipedia

Maria Carolina of Austria

Not to be confused with her two sisters of the same name who died in infancy,born 1740and1748.

Maria Carolina of Austria(Maria Carolina Louise Josepha Johanna Antonia; 13 August 1752 – 8 September 1814) wasQueen of NaplesandSicilyas the wife of KingFerdinand IV and III,who later becameKing of the Two Sicilies.Asde factoruler of her husband's kingdoms, Maria Carolina oversaw thepromulgationof many reforms, including the revocation of the ban onFreemasonry,the enlargement of the navy under herfavorite,Sir John Acton,and the expulsion of Spanish influence. She was a proponent ofenlightened absolutismuntil the advent of theFrench Revolution,when, in order to prevent its ideas gaining currency, she made Naples apolice state.

Maria Carolina of Austria
Portrait byAnton Raphael Mengs,1768
Queen consort of Naples
Tenure
  • 12 May 1768 – 23 January 1799
  • 13 June 1799 – 30 March 1806
Queen consort of Sicily
Tenure12 May 1768 – 8 September 1814
Born(1752-08-13)13 August 1752
Schönbrunn Palace,Vienna,Archduchy of Austria,Holy Roman Empire
Died8 September 1814(1814-09-08)(aged 62)
Hetzendorf Palace,Vienna,Austrian Empire
Burial
Imperial Crypt,Austria
Spouse
​
​
(m.1768)​
Issue
more...
Names
German: Maria Carolina Luise Josefa Johanna Antonia
HouseHabsburg-Lorraine
FatherFrancis I, Holy Roman Emperor
MotherMaria Theresa
SignatureMaria Carolina of Austria's signature

Born anarchduchess of Austria,the thirteenth child ofEmpress Maria TheresaandHoly Roman Emperor Francis I,Maria Carolina married Ferdinand as part of an Austrian alliance with Spain, of whichFerdinand's fatherwas king. Following the birth of a male heir in 1775, Maria Carolina was admitted to thePrivy Council.She dominated the Council until 1812, when she was sent back toVienna.Like her mother, Maria Carolina arranged politically advantageous marriages for her children. Maria Carolina promoted Naples as a centre of the arts, patronising paintersJacob Philipp HackertandAngelica Kauffman,and academicsGaetano Filangieri,Domenico CirilloandGiuseppe Maria Galanti.

Maria Carolina, abhorring how the French treated their queen, her sisterMarie Antoinette,allied Naples with Britain and Austria during theNapoleonicandFrench Revolutionary Wars.As a result of a failed Neapolitan invasion of French-occupied Rome, she fled to Sicily with her husband in December 1798. One month later, theParthenopean Republicwas declared, which repudiated Bourbon rule in Naples for six months. Deposed as Queen of Naples for a second time by French forces, in 1806, Maria Carolina died in Vienna in 1814, a year before her husband's restoration to Naples.

Maria Carolina was the last surviving child of Maria Theresa. She was also the lastqueen of NaplesandSicilybefore the unification of the two into theKingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Early life

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Archduchess Maria Carolina holding a portrait of her father,Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor

Born on 13 August 1752 at theSchönbrunn Palacein Vienna, Maria Carolina Louise Josepha Johanna Antonia was the thirteenth and sixth surviving child ofMaria Theresa,Queen of Hungary and Bohemia and ruler of the Habsburg dominions, andFrancis I, Holy Roman Emperor.She was a namesake of her elder sisters –Maria Carolina,who died two weeks after her first birthday, andMaria Carolina,who died several hours after being baptised – but she was known as Charlotte by her family. Her godparents wereKing Louis XV of Franceand his wife,Maria Leszczyńska.[1]Maria Carolina was the daughter who resembled her mother most.[citation needed]

Maria Carolina formed a very close bond with her youngest sister,Marie Antoinette.[2]From very early on they shared the same governess,Countess Lerchenfeld.A testament to their closeness is the fact that when one caught an illness the other did too.[2]In August 1767 Maria Theresa separated the two girls, hitherto raised together under the auspices of Countess Marie von Brandis, because of their bad behaviour.[3]Soon after in October of the same year, Maria Carolina's sisterMaria Josepha,destined to marryFerdinand IV of Naplesas part of an alliance with Spain, died during asmallpoxepidemic before she could leave for Naples to marry him. Just five years earlier, Maria Josepha's older sister,Maria Johannawas previously engaged to the young king, but she too had died from smallpox.[4]Anxious to save the Austro-Spanish alliance,Charles III of Spain,father of Ferdinand IV, requested one of Maria Josepha's sisters as a replacement.[5][6]The empress offered the court of Madrid, negotiating on behalf of that of Naples,Maria Amaliaor Maria Carolina.[7]Because Maria Amalia was five years older than his son, Charles III opted for the latter.[7]Maria Carolina reacted badly to her engagement, crying, entreating and saying that Neapolitan marriages were unlucky, considering that two of her sisters had died before they could marry Ferdinand.[7]Her objections, however, did not delay her preparation for her new role as Queen of Naples by theCountess of Lerchenfeld.[8]Nine months later, on 7 April 1768, Maria Carolina married Ferdinand IV of Naplesby proxy,her brotherFerdinandrepresenting the bride-groom.[9]

Early reign

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The fifteen-year-old Queen of Naples journeyed at leisure from Vienna to Naples, making stops atMantua,Bologna,Florence,and Rome on the way.[10][11][12]She entered theKingdom of Napleson 12 May 1768, disembarking atTerracina,where she took leave of her native attendants.[11]From Terracina, she and her remaining suite, comprising her brother,the Grand Duke of Tuscany,and his wifeMaria Luisa of Spain,ventured toPoztella,where she met her husband, whom she found "very ugly".[13]To the Countess of Lerchenfeld, she wrote, "I love him only out of duty..."[13]Ferdinand was not taken with her either, declaring, after their first night together, "She sleeps like the dead and sweats like a pig."[14]

Maria Carolina's dislike of her husband, however, did not get in the way of her bearing children, as her most important wifely duty was to perpetuate the dynasty. In total, Maria Carolina bore Ferdinand eighteen children, of whom seven survived into adulthood including his successor,Francis I,the last Holy Roman Empress,a Grand Duchess of Tuscany,the last Queen of the French,anda Princess of Asturias.Maria Carolina of Austria gave birth to eighteen children in twenty one years, from 1772 to 1793.[citation needed]

Portrait of Maria Carolina (byAnton Raphael Mengs,c. 1772–1773)
MarquisBernardo Tanucci,de factoruler of Naples and Sicily from 1759 until 1776

Fall of Tanucci

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Ferdinand, having received a lacklustre education from the Prince of San Nicandro, lacked the ability to rule, relying completely on his father Charles III of Spain's[note 1]counsel, communicated byBernardo Tanucci.[16]Pursuant to Empress Maria Theresa's instructions, Maria Carolina gained Ferdinand's trust by feigning interest in his favourite activity—hunting.[17]With it, she obtained a back door to the administration of the state, to be fully realised only by the birth of an heir in 1775, and her consequent admission to the Privy Council.[17][18]Until then, Maria Carolina presided over the rejuvenation of Neapolitan court life, largely neglected since the advent of her husband's regency.[19]AcademicsGaetano Filangieri,Domenico Cirillo,andGiuseppe Maria Galantifrequented hersalon,among others.[20]

Tanucci's fall from grace came about over an argument with Maria Carolina regardingFreemasonry,of which she was an adherent.[17]Acting on orders from Charles III, Tanucci revived a law from 1751 banning Freemasonry in response to the discovery of a Masonic lodge among the royal regiment.[17]Angered, the queen expressed to Charles III her opinion that Tanucci was ruining the country through the medium of a letter written by her husband, thus making it look as if it was his idea.[21]Resigned to the queen's wishes, Ferdinand dismissed Tanucci in October 1776, causing a rift with his father.[22]The appointment of Tanucci's successor, the Marquis of Sambuca, Maria Carolina's powerless puppet, represented the end of Spanish influence in Naples, hitherto virtually a province of that country.[23][24]Maria Carolina proceeded to alienate large swaths of the nobility by replacing the influence of Spain with that of Austria.[25]Her unpopularity among the nobility was increased by her attempts to curb their prerogative.[25]

Acton and the military

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Sir John Acton,Maria Carolina's favourite, from a painting byEmanuele Napoli

Without Tanucci in government, the queen alone ruled Naples and Sicily, assisted by her French-born, English favourite,Sir John Acton,from 1778 onwards.[26]Acting on her brother theHoly Roman Emperor Joseph II'sadvice, Maria Carolina and Acton revamped the Neapolitan navy, then neglected, opening 4 marine colleges and commissioning 150 ships of various sizes.[26][27]The merchant navy, too, was augmented by trade pacts withRussiaandGenoa.[27]Charles III,having declared war onGreat Britainin alliance with the United States, was angered by Acton's appointment to the Ministry of War and of Marine because he felt his Spanish candidate, Don Antonio Otero, was more worthy of such a high government post by virtue of the fact he was not English.[28]Maria Carolina once again replied using a letter written by the king, expounding to Charles III that Acton, the son of a French woman, was not English and that he was appointed before Spanish hostilities with Britain broke out.[28]Charles's attacks against Acton only served to endear the latter more to the queen, who proceeded to appoint him Field-Marshal.[28]Acton's reforms were not restricted to the expansion of the navy; at the same time, he cut the expenditure of his department by 500,000ducatsand invited foreign drill-sergeants and officers to fill vacancies in the army.[27][29]Acton and Maria Carolina were seen to have become so close by 1782 that, according to the Sardinian ambassador in Naples, people falsely believed they were lovers.[30]That the rumour was untrue was not known to the king, who tried several times to "surprise you together" and threatened to kill them both in a rage.[31]In response, Maria Carolina set spies on her husband, but a reconciliation was soon achieved.[31]As part of thisrapprochement,Acton went to live inCastellamare,but returned to Naples three times a week to see the queen.[31]

Artistic patronage and the death of Charles III

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The Royal Family of Naples,byAngelica Kauffman.This portrait represents a break with typical depictions ofthe Bourbons,incorporating an Arcadian landscape and simple poses[32]

Maria Carolina patronised German-Swiss artists, foremostlyAngelica Kauffman,who famously painted the queen's family in an informal garden setting in 1783, and gave her daughters lessons in drawing.[33]Maria Carolina showered Kauffman with gifts, but she preferred the artistic circles in Rome to Naples.[34]The queen's patronage was not restricted to portrait painters: she allotted landscape painterJacob Philipp Hackerta wing of the palace at Francavilla.[34]Like Kauffman, he gave lessons to the queen's children and enjoyed her confidence.[35]On recommendation from Hackert, the king and queen restored the statues ofPalazzo Farneseand brought them to Naples.[36]In 1784, the queen established the philanthropicSan Leuciocolony, a village with its own unique laws and customs whose sole object was to weave silk.[37]She also commissioned ornamental snuff boxes and jewellery from goldsmiths.[38]

In 1788, with the death of King Charles III, Neapolitan-Spanish relations improved.[39]The new king,Charles IV,was eager to be on good terms with his brother, the King of Naples, sending the Spanish fleet to salute to him.[40]To consolidate their reconciliation, Charles IV proposed that his daughter marry the king and queen's eldest son,the Duke of Calabria.[40]While the king supported the match, Maria Carolina shunned it.[40]Like her mother, she had carefully chosen the prospective husbands and wives of her children, matches that were to cement political alliances of her choosing.[41]The death of the queen's nephewCrown Prince Francis of Austria's wife,Duchess Elisabeth of Württemberg,afforded her an opportunity to fulfil her marital ambitions.[42]Her daughtersMaria TheresaandLuisamarried Crown Prince Francis andFerdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany,respectively, during the Neapolitan royal family's visit to Vienna in 1790.[43]

End of enlightened absolutism

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Marie Antoinette,Queen of France, here depicted by Jean-Baptiste Gautier Dagoty, was Maria Carolina's favourite sister. It was as a response to her treatment by the French that Maria Carolina allied Naples with Britain during theFrench Revolutionary Wars[44]

Maria Carolina was anxious to improve Neapolitan-Papal relations, which had deteriorated owing to arguments withPope Pius VIover ecclesiastical laws and the investiture and choice of bishops.[45]Consequently, Naples had stopped paying its annual tribute of 7,000 ducats.[note 2][45]Therefore, Maria Carolina arranged a meeting with the pope.[45]To emphasise their desire to see him, the king and queen arrived in Rome,en routeto Naples from Vienna, earlier than expected, where they were greeted by Pius VI in a private audience.[46]The pope agreed to cede to the king the right of appointing bishops to vacant sees.[46]Thus, because the king and queen had not made any concessions in return, the prestige of Naples was augmented.[47]On leaving, Maria Carolina was presented with theGolden Rose,a great mark of Papal favour.[47]

The return from Vienna marked a new epoch in the politics of Naples.[48]Alarmed by developments in France, especially in regards to her favourite sister,Marie Antoinette,[note 3]Maria Carolina ended her experiment inenlightened absolutismand started on a reactionary course.[50]She rejected theFrench Revolutionand was determined to prevent its ideology gaining prevalence in Naples.[51]She did this by sub-dividing Naples into twelve police wards, controlled by government-appointed commissioners, replacing the popularly elected alderman system.[52]The effectiveness of the wards was increased by the creation of a secret police force, which had in its pay spies of every class.[52]It was through her secret police that Maria Carolina learned of her substantial decline in popularity among all classes of society.[53]

In an attempt to please Great Britain, with a military alliance in mind, the queen deigned to meet the wife of the English ambassador,Emma Hamilton,in audience, despite the fact that the British Queen,Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,had not yet received her.[note 4][54]However, they soon struck up a friendship, Emma singing duets with the king and dining privately with the royal family.[55]The queen, whom Emma thought "most excellent and strictly good and upright", was drawn closer to Emma by her willingness to betray Britain's diplomatic secrets.[55]

The Sémonville affair and the First Coalition

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Maria Carolina as she appeared in 1791, in a painting byÉlisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun.She strongly resembles her sister, Marie Antoinette

King Louis XVI of Franceand Queen Marie Antoinette were arrested on 10 August 1792.[56]Hence, the Neapolitan government refused to recognise French diplomatist Baron Armand de Mackau's recently arrived legation.[56]Queen Maria Carolina was so horrified at what had happened at theTuileriesthat day that she almost broke off relations with France altogether.[57]The king and queen's procrastination regarding Mackau's requests to be recognised as a representative of theFrench Republic[note 5]caused tension with that country.[59]John Acton, now Prime Minister of Naples, allayed Maria Carolina's fervent desire to go to war with France and tried to placate Mackau until he could rely on British military support.[59]His plan, however, backfired when the French government intercepted a letter detailing how he sabotaged the diplomatic mission ofHuguet de Sémonvilleto theOttoman Empire.[60]When France started making preparations for war in November to avenge this insult, the king and queen finally capitulated and begrudgingly recognized Mackau and the Republic.[60]However, the national assembly had already sent 9 ships under AdmiralLatouche Trévilleto seek redress, which arrived on 17 December in Naples.[61]Latouche stipulated that, if Acton did not apologise to him in person for the Sémonville affair, he would bombard and lay waste to Naples within an hour.[61]The queen's decision to accede to Latouche's demands earned her the criticism of some Neapolitan historians, likeGeneral Colletta,who overlook the fact that Naples was unable to mount a defence at the time as the navy was not mobilised.[61]

Maria Carolina's preventatives againstJacobinismwere rendered useless in the face of the subversive actives of Latouche's fleet, which was obliged to return to Naples shortly after leaving by a storm.[62]The French sailors, "republican agents", were allowed to land on this occasion, inculcating their anti-monarchical sentiments in the Neapolitans.[62]Upon Latouche's departure, on 29 January 1793, Maria Carolina launched an ineffective offensive against Neapolitan radicals, allowing the most dangerous schemers to escape justice.[63]Why the offensive failed can be explained by the fact that her chief of police,Luigi de' Medici,was secretly a radical himself.[63]Concurrently, Maria Carolina arranged a treaty of alliance with Great Britain, on whom France had latterly declared war.[64]By this treaty, Naples was to contribute four men-of-war, four frigates and four smaller ships, along with six thousand soldiers, to protect commerce in the Mediterranean.[64]In August 1793, following theSiege of Toulon,Naples joined theFirst Coalition,comprising Great Britain,Russia,Austria,Prussia,Spain,PortugalandSavoy-Sardinia,against France.[65][66]

Italian campaign

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The effigies of Maria Carolina and her husband on a 1791Neapolitan piastra

The execution of Marie Antoinette in October 1793 breathed a new lease of life into the queen'scounter-revolution.[67]Maria Carolina was so horrified by that event that she refused to speak French, "that monstrous language", and banned the "inflammatory" philosophical works of Galanti and Filangeri, who had hitherto enjoyed the queen's patronage.[68]In 1794, following the discovery of a Jacobin plot to overthrow the government, Maria Carolina ordered Medici to suppress the Freemasons, of which she was once an adherent, believing they were partaking in treasonable activities with the French.[67]The army was kept perpetually mobilised in case of sudden attack, occasioning a huge increase in taxation.[69]Fearing for the safety of her family, Maria Carolina employed food-testers and switched the royal families' apartments on a daily basis.[70]What compelled Maria Carolina to do this was the general terror reigning throughout the city, in which "nobody was safe".[70]

The cessation of Franco-Spanish hostilities in the summer of 1795 gaveNapoleon Bonaparte,a Corsican general in the French army, the opportunity to focus onFrance's Italian Campaign.[71]Bonaparte's successes in Northern Italy[note 6]compelled Maria Carolina to sue for peace, under which Naples had to pay to France a war indemnity of 8 millionfrancs.[73]However, neither country intended to observe this treaty in the long-term.[73]The marriage of her eldest son,the Duke of Calabria,toArchduchess Maria Clementina of Austriain 1797 offered Maria Carolina a brief respite from the affairs of war, which had taken a toll on her health.[74]Maria Carolina entered a secret defensive alliance with Austria on 20 May 1798, in response to France's occupation of thePapal States,which shared a border with Naples.[75]After the British victory at theBattle of the Nile,the queen decided to join theSecond Coalitionagainst France;[76]Austria sentGeneral Mackto take command.[76]War council meetings, comprising the queen, the king, Mack, Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador, andAdmiral Nelson,the victor of the Nile, were held in thePalace of Caserta.[76]They decided to invade theRoman Republic,[note 7]a French puppet state.[78]

Escape and creation of the Parthenopean Republic

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When the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily joined the Second Coalition, Napoleon found a reason to act. The French GeneralJean Étienne Championnetsucceeded rapidly, and in January 1799 he occupied Naples and forced the royal family to escape to Sicily. In the Sicilian exile Maria Carolina continued her politics towards Naples.[citation needed]

Flag of the Parthenopean Republic

On 24 January 1799, theParthenopean Republicwas proclaimed in Naples by the French troops led by General Championnet. The chosen name (afterParthenope,an ancient Greek colony which existed on the site of the future city of Naples) was an attempt by the French to obtain the support of the Neapolitan people. During the republican period, a government was installed with Ercole D'Agnese as elected President, press freedom was proclaimed, and future reforms were prepared. However, after only 6 months, the young republic ended when theSanfedisti,the army led by CardinalFabrizio Ruffo,attacked and invaded Naples (21 June 1799). The collapse of the republic was largely due to the English fleet, which had supplied the royal army with weapons. Again, it was Admiral Nelson who successfully defeated the French in the middle of 1799 from Naples and Sicily securing the throne for the Royal couple.[citation needed]

In June 1800, Maria Carolina traveled with her three unmarried daughters, her younger sonLeopoldo,and accompanied by William and Emma Hamilton and Nelson overLivorno,Florence,TriesteandLaibachtoVienna,where she arrived two months later. Maria Carolina stayed two years in her homeland, where she arranged advantageous marriages for her children. In the family circle, she spent most time with her favorite grandchild,Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria,who later became the wife of her arch-enemy Napoleon.[citation needed]

Exile and death

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Coat of arms of Maria Carolina as Queen of Naples and Sicily

After her stay in Vienna, Maria Carolina returned to Naples on 17 August 1802. It is said that Napoleon claimed that the queen wasthe only man in the Kingdom of Naples.[79]The European states were concerned by Napoleon's growing power, which reached its peak with his Imperial coronation on 18 May 1804. By 1805 Italy was again the center of interest of the new Emperor, whose crown bore the inscriptionRex totius Italiae.From then on, events came quickly and Maria Carolina was surprised by the news of the defeat of Austria in theBattle of Austerlitz(2 December 1805).[citation needed]

Napoleon then did not hesitate to conquer Naples and installed first his brotherJoseph Bonaparte,and four years later his brother-in-lawJoachim Murat,on the throne of Naples. The royal family was forced to flee to Sicily in February 1806. In their exile, the refugees relied on the help of Great Britain, but after the death of Admiral Nelson in theBattle of Trafalgar(21 October 1805), the British developed more and more aversion to Maria Carolina. Finally in 1813, her husband essentially (but not officially) abdicated and appointed their sonFrancisregent. This deprived her of any political influence, and the queen was forced to leave Sicily and return to Vienna.[citation needed]

During her trip, she received the news of Napoleon's defeat at theBattle of Leipzigon 19 October 1813. After a long journey throughConstantinople,Odessa,Lviv,andBudapest,Maria Carolina finally arrived in Vienna in January 1814, where she began negotiations with Prince Metternich and her nephew, EmperorFrancis I of Austria,for the restoration of her husband and herself to the Neapolitan throne. However, this never happened: Maria Carolina died on 8 September as a consequence of a stroke, without seeing the final defeat of Napoleon and the restoration of her husband by theCongress of Vienna.Her maid found the queen lying dead on the floor among scattered letters. Maria Carolina was the last surviving child of Empress Maria Theresa.[citation needed]

Maria Carolina was buried in theImperial Cryptin Vienna. Her parents and most of her siblings are also buried there.[80]

Issue

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Ancestry

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Notes

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  1. ^Charles III was King of Naples and Sicily from 1734 until 1759, when his half-brother,Ferdinand VI,died.[15]
  2. ^TheKingdom of Napleswas nominally aPapalfief.
  3. ^In Rome, Maria Carolina met theMesdames de France,the last two surviving daughters ofKing Louis XV,who had sought refuge from the turmoil engulfing France there.[49]From them, Maria Carolina learned of her sister's maltreatment at the hands of the French.[49]
  4. ^At the time, there was a convention that disbarred women from being received by a foreign sovereign if they had not been received by their native one.[54]
  5. ^The French monarchy had just been abolished, on 21 September 1792.[58]
  6. ^Napoleon had conquered Parma, Modena, Lombardy and the main fortresses of Piedmont in rapid succession.[72]
  7. ^France had replaced the Papal States with a republic in February 1798.[77]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^Lever, p. 315.
  2. ^abFraser, p. 27.
  3. ^Fraser, p. 38.
  4. ^Crankshaw, p. 274.
  5. ^Acton, p. 126.
  6. ^Bearne, p. 57.
  7. ^abcBearne, p. 60.
  8. ^Bearne, p. 62.
  9. ^Bearne, p. 66.
  10. ^Acton, p. 129.
  11. ^abActon, p. 130.
  12. ^Bearne, p. 67.
  13. ^abBearne, p. 71.
  14. ^Acton, p. 131.
  15. ^Jones, p. 243.
  16. ^Acton, p. 114.
  17. ^abcdActon, p. 172.
  18. ^Bearne, p. 78.
  19. ^Bearne, p. 80.
  20. ^Bearne, p. 81.
  21. ^Acton, p. 175.
  22. ^Acton, pp. 175–176.
  23. ^Bearne, p. 84.
  24. ^Acton, p. 176.
  25. ^abBearne, p. 174.
  26. ^abActon, p. 181.
  27. ^abcActon, p. 189.
  28. ^abcActon, p. 188.
  29. ^Bearne, p. 102.
  30. ^Acton, p. 190.
  31. ^abcBearne, p. 104.
  32. ^Tarabra, p. 203.
  33. ^Acton, p. 214.
  34. ^abActon, p. 215.
  35. ^Acton, p. 216.
  36. ^Acton, p. 217.
  37. ^Bearne, pp. 124–125.
  38. ^"V&A Museum inventory"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 March 2016.Retrieved16 August2012.
  39. ^Bearne, p. 112.
  40. ^abcBearne, p. 113.
  41. ^Bearne, p. 114.
  42. ^Acton, p. 229.
  43. ^Wheatcroft, p. 238.
  44. ^Jackson, pp. 260–261.
  45. ^abcBearne, p. 127.
  46. ^abActon, p. 232.
  47. ^abActon, p. 233.
  48. ^Bearne, p. 138.
  49. ^abBearne, p. 128.
  50. ^Bearne, p. 142.
  51. ^Acton, p. 237.
  52. ^abBearne, p. 143.
  53. ^Bearne, p. 172.
  54. ^abActon, p. 241.
  55. ^abActon, p. 242.
  56. ^abBearne, p. 145.
  57. ^Bearne, p. 161.
  58. ^Lever, p. 285.
  59. ^abActon, p. 245.
  60. ^abActon, p. 246.
  61. ^abcBearne, p. 164.
  62. ^abActon, p. 251.
  63. ^abActon, p. 256.
  64. ^abBearne, p. 191.
  65. ^Acton, p. 258.
  66. ^Bearne, p. 192.
  67. ^abDavis, p. 76.
  68. ^Acton, p. 262.
  69. ^Davis, p. 77.
  70. ^abBearne, p. 221.
  71. ^Acton, p. 279.
  72. ^Acton, p. 280.
  73. ^abBearne, p. 236.
  74. ^Bearne, p. 238.
  75. ^Acton, p. 300.
  76. ^abcBearne, p. 246.
  77. ^"Roman Republic".Encyclopædia Britannica.britannica.com.Retrieved4 May2010.
  78. ^Acton, p. 308.
  79. ^Napoli nobilissima: rivista di topografia ed arte napoletana,Volume 1, Article titledLa Floridiana,by Riccardo Carafa, page 65.
  80. ^"Kapuzinergruft".www.kapuzinergruft.com(in German).Retrieved23 January2023.
  81. ^Genealogie ascendante jusqu'au quatrieme degre inclusivement de tous les Rois et Princes de maisons souveraines de l'Europe actuellement vivans[Genealogy up to the fourth degree inclusive of all the Kings and Princes of sovereign houses of Europe currently living] (in French). Bourdeaux: Frederic Guillaume Birnstiel. 1768. p. 1.

Bibliography

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  • Acton, Harold (1956).Bourbons of Naples.Methuen & Co.: London.
  • Bearne, Catherine Mary (1907).A Sister of Marie Antoinette: The Life-Story of Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples.T. Fisher Unwin: London
  • Crankshaw, Edward (1969).Maria Theresa.Longman Publishers: London.
  • Davis, John Anthony (2006).Naples and Napoleon: southern Italy and the European revolutions (1780–1860).Oxford University Press: Oxford.ISBN0-19-820755-7
  • Fraser, Antonia (2002).Marie Antoinette: The Journey.Phoenix: London.ISBN978-0-7538-1305-8
  • Jackson, Gudia M (2000).Women Rulers Throughout the Ages: An Illustrated Guide.Abc-Clio: Santa Barbara.ISBN1-85109-339-7
  • Jones, Colin (2002).The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon.Columbia University Press: New York.ISBN0-231-12882-7
  • Recca, Cinzia (2016). "The Diary of Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, 1781-1785: New Evidence of Queenship at Court". Palgrave McMillan:London -New York

ISBN9783319319872

  • Lever, Evelyn (2006).Marie Antoinette: The Last Queen of France.Judy Piatkus: London.ISBN0-7499-2194-3
  • Nagel, Susan. (2008).Marie Thérèse: The Fate of Marie Antoinette's Daughter.Bloosmbury: New York.ISBN978-0-7475-8159-8
  • Tarabra, Daniela (2008).European Art of the Eighteenth Century.The J. Paul Getty Museum: Los Angeles.ISBN978-0-89236-921-8
  • Vernon, Mrs HM. (1909).Italy: From 1494 to 1790.Cambridge University Press: London.
  • Wheatcroft, Andrew (1996).The Habsburgs: Embodying Empire.Penguin Books: London.ISBN978-0-14-023634-7
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Maria Carolina of Austria
Cadet branch of theHouse of Lorraine
Born:13 August 1752Died:8 September 1814
Italian royalty
Vacant
Title last held by
Maria Amalia of Saxony 		Queen consort of Naples
12 May 1768 – 23 January 1799 		Vacant
Queen consort of Sicily
12 May 1768 – 8 September 1814 		Vacant
Title next held by
María Isabella of Spain
asQueen of the Two Sicilies
Vacant Queen consort of Naples
13 June 1799 – 30 March 1806 		Vacant
Title next held by
Julie Clary
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maria_Carolina_of_Austria&oldid=1245776146"