TheMaurya Empirewas a geographically extensiveIron Agehistorical powerinSouth Asiabased inMagadha.Founded byChandragupta Mauryain 322 BCE, it existed in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE.[20]The empire was centralized by the conquest of theIndo-Gangetic Plain;its capital city was located atPataliputra(modernPatna). Outside this imperial centre, the empire's geographical extent was dependent on the loyalty of military commanders who controlled the armed cities scattered within it.[21][22][23]DuringAshoka's rule (ca. 268–232 BCE), the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of thesubcontinentexcepting the deep south.[20]It declined for about 50 years after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in 185 BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha byPushyamitra Shungaand foundation of theShunga dynastyinMagadha.
Maurya Empire | |
|---|---|
| 322 BCE – 185 BCE | |
![Territories of the Maurya Empire conceptualized as core areas or linear networks separated by large autonomous regions in the works of scholars such as: historians Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund;[1] Burton Stein;[2] David Ludden;[3] and Romila Thapar;[4] anthropologists Monica L. Smith[5] and Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah;[4] archaeologist Robin Coningham;[4] and historical demographer Tim Dyson.[6]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AMaurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE.png&t=hv) Territories of the Maurya Empire conceptualized as core areas or linear networks separated by large autonomous regions in the works of scholars such as: historiansHermann KulkeandDietmar Rothermund;[1]Burton Stein;[2]David Ludden;[3]andRomila Thapar;[4]anthropologistsMonica L. Smith[5]andStanley Jeyaraja Tambiah;[4]archaeologistRobin Coningham;[4]and historical demographerTim Dyson.[6] | |
![Maximum extent of the Maurya Empire, as shown by the location of Ashoka's inscriptions, and visualized by historians: Vincent Arthur Smith;[7] R. C. Majumdar;[8] and historical geographer Joseph E. Schwartzberg.[9]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AMaurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE_2.png&t=hv) Maximum extent of the Maurya Empire, as shown by the location ofAshoka's inscriptions,and visualized by historians:Vincent Arthur Smith;[7]R. C. Majumdar;[8]and historical geographerJoseph E. Schwartzberg.[9] | |
| Status | Empire |
| Capital | Pataliputra (present-dayPatna) |
| Common languages | Sanskrit(literary and academic), Magadhi Prakrit(vernacular) |
| Religion | |
| Demonym(s) | Indian |
| Government | Absolute monarchy,as described inKautilya'sArthashastra andRajamandala[17] |
| Emperor | |
• 322–298 BCE | Chandragupta |
• 298–272 BCE | Bindusara |
• 268–232 BCE | Ashoka |
• 232–224 BCE | Dasharatha |
• 224–215 BCE | Samprati |
• 215–202 BCE | Shalishuka |
• 202–195 BCE | Devavarman |
• 195–187 BCE | Shatadhanvan |
• 187–185 BCE | Brihadratha |
| Historical era | Iron Age |
| 322 BCE | |
• Assassination of Brihadratha byPushyamitra Shunga | 185 BCE |
| Area | |
| 261 BCE[18] (low-end estimate of peak area) | 3,400,000 km2(1,300,000 sq mi) |
| 250 BCE[19] (high-end estimate of peak area) | 5,000,000 km2(1,900,000 sq mi) |
| Currency | Karshapana |
| Today part of | India Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal Afghanistan, Iran |
Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance ofChanakya,author of theArthashastra,[24]and overthrew theNanda Empireinc. 322 BCE.Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by conquering thesatrapsleft byAlexander the Great,and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India.[25]The Mauryan Empire then defeatedSeleucus I,adiadochusand founder of theSeleucid Empire,during theSeleucid–Mauryan war,thus acquiring territory west of theIndus River.[26][27]
Under the Mauryas, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities thrived and expanded across South Asia due to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Maurya dynasty built Uttarapath, a precursor of theGrand Trunk Roadfrom Patliputra toTaxila.[28]After theKalinga War,the Empire experienced nearly half a century of centralized rule under Ashoka. Ashoka's embrace ofBuddhismand sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed for the expansion of that faith intoSri Lanka,northwest India, and Central Asia.[29]
The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million.[30] The empire's period of dominion was marked by exceptional creativity in art, architecture, inscriptions and produced texts,[3]but also by the consolidation ofcastein theGangetic plain,and the declining rights of women in the mainstreamIndo-Aryan speakingregions of India.[31] Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era ofNorthern Black Polished Ware(NBPW). TheArthashastra[32]and theEdicts of Ashokaare the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. TheLion Capital of AshokaatSarnathis theState Emblem of the Republic of India.
Etymology
The name "Maurya" does not occur inAshoka's inscriptions,or the contemporary Greek accounts such asMegasthenes'sIndica,but it is attested by the following sources:[33]
- TheJunagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman(c. 150 CE) prefixes "Maurya" to the names Chandragupta and Ashoka.[33]
- ThePuranas(c. 4th century CE or earlier) use Maurya as a dynastic appellation.[33]
- The Buddhist texts state that Chandragupta belonged to the "Moriya"clan of the Shakyas, the tribe to whichGautama Buddhabelonged.[33]
- The Jain texts state that Chandragupta was the son of an imperial superintendent of peacocks (mayura-poshaka).[33]
- Tamil Sangam literaturealso designate them as 'moriyar' and mention them after theNandas[34]
- Kuntalainscription (from the town of Bandanikke,North Mysore) of 12th century AD chronologically mention Maurya as one of the dynasties which ruled the region.[35]
According to some scholars, Kharavela'sHathigumpha inscription(2nd-1st century BC) mentions era of Maurya Empire as Muriya Kala (Mauryan era),[36]but this reading is disputed: other scholars—such as epigraphistD. C. Sircar—read the phrase as mukhiya-kala ( "the principal art" ).[37]
According to the Buddhist tradition, the ancestors of the Maurya kings had settled in a region where peacocks (morainPali) were abundant. Therefore, they came to be known as "Moriyas", literally meaning, "belonging to the place of peacocks". According to another Buddhist account, these ancestors built a city called Moriya-nagara ( "Peacock-city" ), which was so called, because it was built with the "bricks coloured like peacocks' necks".[38]
The dynasty's connection to the peacocks, as mentioned in the Buddhist and Jain traditions, seems to be corroborated by archaeological evidence. For example, peacock figures are found on theAshoka pillar at Nandangarhand several sculptures on the Great Stupa ofSanchi.Based on this evidence, modern scholars theorize that the peacock may have been the dynasty's emblem.[39]
Some later authors, such asDhundhi-raja(an 18th-century commentator on theMudrarakshasaand an annotator of theVishnu Purana), state that the word "Maurya" is derived from Mura and the mother of the first Maurya emperor. However, the Puranas themselves make no mention of Mura and do not talk of any relation between the Nanda and the Maurya dynasties.[40]Dhundiraja's derivation of the word seems to be his own invention: according to the Sanskrit rules, the derivative of the feminine name Mura (IAST:Murā) would be "Maureya"; the term "Maurya" can only be derived from the masculine "Mura".[41]
History
Founding
Prior to the Maurya Empire, theNanda Empireruled over a broad swathe of the Indian subcontinent. The Nanda Empire was a large, militaristic, and economically powerful empire due to conquering themahajanapadas.According to several legends, Chanakya travelled toPataliputra,Magadha,the capital of the Nanda Empire where Chanakya worked for the Nandas as aminister.However, Chanakya was insulted by the KingDhana Nandawhen he informed them of Alexander's invasion. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.[42]He had to flee in order to save his life and went toTaxila,a notable center of learning, to work as a teacher. On one of his travels, Chanakya witnessed some young men playing a rural game practicing a pitched battle. One of the boys was none other than Chandragupta. Chanakya was impressed by the young Chandragupta and saw imperial qualities in him as someone fit to rule.
Meanwhile,Alexander the Greatwas leading his Indian campaigns and ventured into Punjab. His army mutinied at theBeas Riverand refused to advance farther eastward when confronted by another army. Alexander returned toBabylonand re-deployed most of his troops west of theIndus River.Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented into independent kingdoms ruled by his generals.[43]
The Maurya Empire was established in the Magadha region under the leadership of Chandragupta Maurya and his mentor Chanakya. Chandragupta was taken to Taxila by Chanakya and was tutored about statecraft and governing. Requiring an army Chandragupta recruited and annexed localmilitary republicssuch as theYaudheyasthat had resisted Alexander's Empire. The Mauryan army quickly rose to become the prominent regional power in the North West of the Indian subcontinent. The Mauryan army then conquered the satraps established by theMacedonians.[44]Ancient Greek historiansNearchus,Onesictrius,andAristobolushave provided lot of information about the Mauryan empire.[45]The Greek generalsEudemusandPeithonruled in theIndus Valleyuntil around 317 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) fought and drove out the Greek governors, and subsequently brought the Indus Valley under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.[25]
Chandragupta Maurya's ancestry is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the dramaMudrarakshasa(Signet ring of Rakshasa–Rakshasawas the prime minister of Magadha) byVishakhadatta,describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliestBuddhist texts,Mahāparinibbāna Sutta.However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[46]Chanakya is said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[47][unreliable source?]
Overthrow of the Nanda Empire
Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign againstNanda Empireare unavailable and legends written centuries later are inconsistent. Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts claimMagadhawas ruled by theNanda dynasty,which, withChanakya's counsel,Chandraguptaconquered Nanda Empire.[49][50][51]The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered the Nanda outer territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capitalPataliputra.In contrast to the easy victory in Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army.[52][50]
The BuddhistMahavamsa Tikaand JainParishishtaparvanrecords Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital.[53]Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital.[54]He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. ThereDhana Nandaaccepted defeat.[55][56]The conquest was fictionalised inMudrarakshasaplay, it contains narratives not found in other versions of the Chanakya-Chandragupta legend. Because of this difference,Thomas Trautmannsuggests that most of it is fictional or legendary, without any historical basis.[57]Radha Kumud Mukherjeesimilarly considers Mudrakshasa play without historical basis.[58]
These legends state that the Nanda emperor was defeated, deposed and exiled by some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he was killed.[59]With the defeat of Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire.[60]
Chandragupta Maurya
After thedeath of Alexander the Greatin 323 BCE, Chandragupta led aseries of campaignsin 305 BCE to takesatrapiesin the Indus Valley and northwest India.[61]When Alexander's remaining forces were routed, returning westwards, Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these territories. Not many details of the campaigns are known from ancient sources. Seleucus was defeated and retreated into the mountainous region of Afghanistan.[62]
The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in 303 BCE, including a marital alliance. Under its terms, Chandragupta received the satrapies ofParopamisadae(KambojaandGandhara) andArachosia(Kandahar Province) andGedrosia(Balochistan). Seleucus I received the 500war elephantsthat were to have a decisive role in his victory against westernHellenistickings at theBattle of Ipsusin 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historianMegasthenes,DeimachusandDionysiusresided at the Mauryan court.[63]
Megasthenes in particular was a notable Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.[64]His bookIndikais a major literary source for information about the Mauryan Empire. According toArrian,ambassador Megasthenes (c. 350 – c. 290 BCE) lived in Arachosia and travelled toPataliputra.[65]Megasthenes' description of Mauryan society as freedom-loving gave Seleucus a means to avoid invasion, however, underlying Seleucus' decision was the improbability of success. In later years, Seleucus' successors maintained diplomatic relations with the Empire based on similar accounts from returning travellers.[61]
Chandragupta established a strong centralised state with an administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers".Aelian,although not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentioning Pataliputra, described Indian palaces as superior in splendor toPersia'sSusaorEcbatana.[66]The architecture of the city seems to have had many similarities with Persian cities of the period.[67]
Chandragupta's sonBindusaraextended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. The famousTamilpoetMamulanarof theSangam literaturedescribed how areas south of theDeccan Plateauwhich comprisedTamilakamwas invaded by the Mauryan Army using troops from Karnataka. Mamulanar states thatVadugar(people who resided in Andhra-Karnataka regions immediately to the north of Tamil Nadu) formed the vanguard of the Mauryan Army.[34][68]He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, namedDeimachus.[69]According toPlutarch,Chandragupta Maurya subdued all of India, and Justin also observed that Chandragupta Maurya was "in possession of India". These accounts are corroborated by Tamil Sangam literature which mentions about Mauryan invasion with their south Indian allies and defeat of their rivals at Podiyil hill inTirunelveli districtin present-dayTamil Nadu.[70][71]
Chandragupta renounced his throne and followed Jain teacherBhadrabahu.[72][73][74]He is said to have lived as an ascetic atShravanabelagolafor several years before fasting to death, as per the Jain practice ofsallekhana.[75]
Bindusara
Bindusara was born toChandragupta,the founder of the Mauryan Empire. This is attested by several sources, including the variousPuranasand theMahāvaṃsa.[76][full citation needed]He is attested by the Buddhist texts such asDīpavaṃsaandMahāvaṃsa( "Bindusaro" ); the Jain texts such asParishishta-Parvan;as well as the Hindu texts such asVishnu Purana( "Vindusara" ).[77][78]According to the 12th century Jain writerHemachandra'sParishishta-Parvan,the name of Bindusara's mother wasDurdhara.[79]Some Greek sources also mention him by the name "Amitrochates" or its variations.[80][81]
HistorianUpinder Singhestimates that Bindusara ascended the throne around 297 BCE.[68]Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan andBaluchistan.Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known asKarnataka.He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' – the peninsular region between theBay of Bengaland theArabian Sea). Bindusara did not conquer the friendlyTamil kingdomsof theCholas,ruled by KingIlamcetcenni,thePandyas,andCheras.Apart from these southern states,Kalinga(modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that did not form part of Bindusara's empire.[82]It was later conquered by his sonAshoka,who served as theViceroyofAvantirastraduring his father's reign, which highlights the importance of the province.[83][84]
Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans".[85]During his rule, the citizens ofTaxilarevolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration ofSusima,his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death.[86]
Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with the Hellenic world.Deimachuswas the ambassador ofSeleucidkingAntiochus Iat Bindusara's court.[87]Diodorusstates that the king of Palibothra (Pataliputra,the Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek author,Iambulus.This king is usually identified as Bindusara.[87]Plinystates that thePtolemaickingPhiladelphussent an envoy namedDionysiusto India.[88][89]According to Sailendra Nath Sen, this appears to have happened during Bindusara's reign.[87]
Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage converted toJainism), Bindusara believed in theAjivikareligion. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin[90]of the Ajivika religion. Bindusara's wife, EmpressSubhadrangiwas aBrahmin[91]also of the Ajivika religion fromChampa(presentBhagalpur district). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).[92]
Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in the 270s BCE. According to Upinder Singh, Bindusara died around 273 BCE.[68]Alain Daniéloubelieves that he died around 274 BCE.[85]Sailendra Nath Sen believes that he died around 273–272 BCE, and that his death was followed by a four-year struggle of succession, after which his sonAshokabecame the emperor in 269–268 BCE.[87]According to theMahāvaṃsa,Bindusara reigned for 28 years.[93]TheVayu Purana,which names Chandragupta's successor as "Bhadrasara", states that he ruled for 25 years.[94]
Ashoka
As a young prince, Ashoka (r. 272–232BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As emperor he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest ofKalinga(262–261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Ashoka used Kalinga to project power over a large region by building a fortification there and securing it as a possession.[95]Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and citizen militias, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Imperial Mauryan soldiers. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries. He also propagated his owndhamma.[citation needed]
Ashoka implemented principles ofahimsaby banning hunting and violent sports activity and abolishingslave trade.While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.[citation needed]
TheEdicts of Ashoka,set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written inGreek,and one in both Greek andAramaic.Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks,Kambojas,andGandharasas peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of theHellenistic worldat the time such asAmtiyoko(Antiochus II Theos),Tulamaya(Ptolemy II),Amtikini(Antigonos II),Maka(Magas) andAlikasudaro(Alexander II of Epirus) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism.[citation needed]The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (1 yojana being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).[96]
Decline
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker emperors. He was succeeded byDasharatha Maurya,who was Ashoka's grandson. None of Ashoka's sons could ascend to the throne after him.Mahinda,his firstborn, became a Buddhist monk.Kunala Mauryawas blinded and hence couldn't ascend to the throne; andTivala,son ofKaruvaki,died even earlier than Ashoka. Little is known about another son,Jalauka.
The empire lost many territories under Dasharatha, which were later reconquered bySamprati,Kunala's son. Post Samprati, the Mauryas slowly lost many territories. In 180 BCE,Brihadratha Maurya,was killed by hisgeneral,Pushyamitra Shungain a military parade without any heir. Hence, the great Maurya Empire finally ended, giving rise to theShunga Empire.
Reasons advanced for the decline include the succession of weak emperors after Ashoka Maurya, the partition of the empire into two, the growing independence of some areas within the empire, such as that ruled bySophagasenus,a top-heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons, an absence of any national consciousness,[97]the pure scale of the empire making it unwieldy, and invasion by theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom.
Some historians, such asHem Chandra Raychaudhuri,have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such asRomila Thapar,have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".[98]
Shunga coup (185 BCE)
Buddhist records such as theAshokavadanawrite that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga empire led to a wave of religious persecution forBuddhists,[99]and a resurgence ofHinduism.[citation needed]According toSir John Marshall,[100]Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such asEtienne Lamotte[101]andRomila Thapar,[102]among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.
Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)
The fall of the Mauryas left theKhyber Passunguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. TheGreco-BactriankingDemetriuscapitalized on the breakup, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming theIndo-Greek Kingdom.The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings,Menander,became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city ofSialkot.However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as theShungas,Satavahanas,andKalingaare unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, namedIndo-Scythians,brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region ofMathura,and Gujarat.[citation needed]
Military
Megasthenes mentions military command consisting of six boards of five members each, (i)Navy(ii)Military transport(iii)Infantry(iv)CavalryandCatapults(v)Chariot divisionsand (vi)Elephants.[103]
Administration
The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital atPataliputra.From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals areTosali(in the east),Ujjain(in the west),Suvarnagiri(in the south), andTaxila(in the north). The head of the provincial administration was theKumar(prince), who governed the provinces as emperor's representative. Thekumarawas assisted bymahamatyas(great ministers) and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and hisMantriparishad(Council of Ministers).[citation needed].The Mauryans established a well developed coin minting system. Coins were mostly made of silver and copper. Certain gold coins were in circulation as well. The coins were widely used for trade and commerce[104]
Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described byChanakyain theArthashastra:a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been one of the largest armies in the world during theIron Age.[105]According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants.[106]A vastespionagesystem collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instil stability and peace across West and South Asia.[citation needed].Even though large parts were under the control of Mauryan empire the spread of information and imperial messages was limited since many parts were inaccessible and were situated far away from capital of empire.[107]
The economy of the empire has been described as, "a socialized monarchy", "a sort of state socialism", and the world's firstwelfare state.[108]Under the Mauryan system there was no private ownership of land as all land was owned by the emperor to whom tribute was paid by the laboring class. In return the emperor supplied the laborers with agricultural products, animals, seeds, tools, public infrastructure, and stored food in reserve for times of crisis.[108]
Local government
ArthashastraandMegasthenesaccounts ofPataliputradescribe the intricate municipal system formed by Maurya empire to govern its cities. A city counsel made up of thirty commissioners was divided into six committees or boards which governed the city. The first board fixed wages and looked after provided goods, second board made arrangement for foreign dignitaries, tourists and businessmen, third board made records and registrations, fourth looked after manufactured goods and sale of commodities, fifth board regulated trade, issued licenses and checked weights and measurements, sixth board collected sales taxes. Some cities such as Taxila had autonomy to issue their own coins. The city counsel had officers who looked after public welfare such as maintenance of roads, public buildings, markets, hospitals, educational institutions etc.[109]The official head of the village wasGramikaand in towns and cities wasNagarika.[110]The city counsel also had some magisterial powers. The taking of census was regular process in the Mauryan administration. The village heads (Gramika) and mayors (Nagarika) were responsible enumerating different classes of people in the Mauryan empire such as traders, agriculturists, smiths, potters, carpenters etc. and also cattle, mostly for taxation purposes.[111][better source needed]These vocations consolidated as castes, a feature of Indian society that continues to influence the Indian politics till today.
Economy
For the first time inSouth Asia,political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a centrally administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in theArthashastra.Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Mauryas also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to new-found political unity and internal peace.[citation needed]
Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. TheKhyber Pass,on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through theMalay Peninsulainto Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The external world came across new scientific knowledge and technology with expanding trade with the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.[citation needed]
In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to theRoman Empireof several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar tocorporations.While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire itself.[112]
| Maurya Empire coinage |
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![Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.[citation needed]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AMauryanCoin.JPG&t=hv)
![Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse.[citation needed]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AMauryan_coin_with_arched_hill_symbol_on_reverse.jpg&t=hv)
![Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-2nd century BCE.[citation needed]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AMauryan_Empire._Circa_late_4th-2nd_century_BC.jpg&t=hv)
![Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207-194 BCE.[113]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AMauryan_Empire._temp._Salisuka_or_later._Circa_207-194_BC.jpg&t=hv)
Religion
WhileBrahmanismwas an important religion throughout the period of the empire,[10][a]the Mauryans were rooted in the non-Vedic Magadha realm, and favoredJainism,[11][12][13][b]Buddhism,[14][15][c]andAjivikism.[14][15][d]Brahmanism, which had developed in the conqueredKuru-Panchalarealm, lost its privileges, which threatened its very existence, and pressured it to transform itself into a "socio-political ideology" which eventually became influential far beyond the confines of its original homeland,[114][e]resulting in theHindu synthesisin which Brahmanical ideology, local traditions, and elements from the sramana-traditions, were synthesized.
While according to Greek travellerMegasthenes,Chandragupta Maurya sponsored Brahmanical rituals and sacrifices,[115][116][117]according to a Jain text from the 12th century, Chandragupta Maurya followedJainismafter retiring, when he renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group ofJain monksand in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self-purifying Jain ritual ofsanthara(fast unto death), atShravana BelgolainKarnataka,[75][74][118][73]though it is also possible that "they are talking about his great grandson."[119]Samprati,the grandson ofAshoka,patronized Jainism. Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monks likeSuhastinand he is said to have built 125,000derasarsacross India.[120]Some of them are still found in the towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana.[citation needed]It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers and preachers to Greece,Persiaand theMiddle Eastfor the spread of Jainism, but, to date, no evidence has been found to support this claim.[121][122]
The Buddhist textsSamantapasadikaandMahāvaṃsasuggest that Bindusara followed Brahmanism, calling him a "Brahmana bhatto"(" devotee of the Brahmins ").[123][124]
Magadha,the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of Buddhism. In later life Ashoka followed Buddhism; following theKalinga War,he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of theArthashastraon the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his sonMahindaand daughterSanghamittatoSri Lanka,whose kingTissawas so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions toWest Asia,Greece andSouth East Asia,and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as well as the publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India, such asSanchiandMahabodhi Temple,and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan andThailand.Ashoka helped convene theThird Buddhist Councilof India's and South Asia's Buddhist orders near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire.[125]
Society
The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million.[126]According to Tim Dyson, the period of the Mauryan Empire saw the consolidation ofcasteamong theIndo-Aryan peoplewho had settled in the Gangetic plain, increasingly meeting tribal people who were incorporated into their evolving caste-system, and the declining rights of women in theIndo-Aryan speakingregions of India, though "these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent."[127]
Architectural remains
The greatest monument of this period, executed in the reign ofChandragupta Maurya,was the old palace at Paliputra, modernKumhrarinPatna.Excavations have unearthed the remains of the palace, which is thought to have been a group of several buildings, the most important of which was an immense pillared hall supported on a high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays. The number of columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the eyewitness account ofMegasthenes,the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in splendour and magnificence the palaces ofSusaandEcbatana,its gilded pillars being adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs.[128][better source needed]Kauṭilya'sArthashastraalso gives the method of palace construction from this period. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for the construction of the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones.[citation needed]
During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly diversified order and comprised lofty free-standing pillars, railings ofstupas,lion thrones and other colossal figures. The use of stone had reached such great perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning ofBuddhist architecture.Ashoka was responsible for the construction of severalstupas,which were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most important ones are located atSanchi,Bodhgaya,Bharhut,and possiblyAmaravati Stupa.The most widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are theAshoka pillarsand carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout theIndian subcontinent.[129][better source needed]
The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa.[39]
| Maurya structures and decorations atSanchi (3rd century BCE) | |
 Approximate reconstitution of the Great Stupa atSanchiunder theMauryas. |
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![The capital nowadays.[130]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASanchi_capital_right_side_view.jpg&t=hv)
Natural history
... (Yakhe...for "Yaksha..." ) arepaleographicallyof a later date, circa 2nd century CEKushan.[131]The protection of animals in India was advocated by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their denizens, and fauna in general is of interest.[132]
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but alsobattle-elephants;these played a role in the defeat ofSeleucus,one ofAlexander the Great's former generals. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them.Kautilya'sArthashastracontains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as theProtector of the Elephant Forests.[133]
On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain. The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.
The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins. Elsewhere theProtector of Animalsalso worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.[citation needed]
The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded allforest tribeswith distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers oraranyacato guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[134]
WhenAshokaembraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history[failed verification]to advocateconservationmeasures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the emperor's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:[134]
Our king killed very few animals.
However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in imperial hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[134]
Contacts with the Hellenistic world
Foundation of the Empire
Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire.Plutarchreports that Chandragupta Maurya met withAlexander the Great,probably aroundTaxilain the northwest:[135]
Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth.
Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 317–316 BCE)
Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have beenEudemus,ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE orPeithon, son of Agenor,ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure forBabylonin 316 BCE.[citation needed]
India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination.
Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory.
— Justin XV.4.19[138]
Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)
Seleucus I Nicator,the Macedoniansatrapof the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian,History of Rome,The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered into a confrontation with Emperor Chandragupta:
Always lying in wait for the neighbouring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.
Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including eastern Afghanistan andBalochistan.[citation needed]
Marriage alliance
Chandragupta andSeleucusconcluded a peace treaty and a marriage alliance in 303 BCE. Chandragupta received vast territories and in a return gave Seleucus 500war elephants,[144][145][146][147][148]a military asset which would play a decisive role at theBattle of Ipsusin 301 BCE.[149]In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,Megasthenes,to Chandragupta, and laterDeimakosto his sonBindusara,at the Mauryan court atPataliputra(modernPatnainBihar). Later,Ptolemy II Philadelphus,the ruler ofPtolemaic Egyptand contemporary ofAshoka,is also recorded byPliny the Elderas having sent an ambassador namedDionysiusto the Mauryan court.[150][better source needed]
Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including theHindu Kush,modern-day Afghanistan, and theBalochistanprovince of Pakistan.[151][152]Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of theEdicts of Ashoka,are known as far asKandaharin southern Afghanistan.
He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship.
After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war againstAntigonus.
The treaty on "Epigamia"implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both.[citation needed]
Exchange of presents
Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent variousaphrodisiacsto Seleucus:[80]
And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love.
His sonBindusara'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged presents withAntiochus I:[80]
But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, asAristophanessays, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs" ), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote toAntiochus,entreating him (it isHegesanderwho tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and asophist;and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece.
Greek population in India
An influential and large Greek population was present in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule, possibly remnants of Alexander's conquests in the Indus Valley region. In theRock Edicts of Ashoka,some of them inscribed in Greek, Ashoka states that the Greeks within his dominion were converted to Buddhism:
Here in the king's dominion among theGreeks,theKambojas,the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhrasand the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions inDharma.
Now, in times past (officers) calledMahamatrasof morality did not exist before. Mahdmatras of morality were appointed by me (when I had been) anointed thirteen years. These are occupied with all sects in establishing morality, in promoting morality, and for the welfare and happiness of those who are devoted to morality (even) among theGreeks,KambojasandGandharas,and whatever other western borderers (of mine there are).
Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered inKandahar.It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the wordEusebeia( "Piety") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous"Dharma"of his other Edicts written inPrakrit:[non-primary source needed]
Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια,Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily.
Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)
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![The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[155]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/AiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg/166px-AiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg)
The distribution of theEdicts of Ashoka.[155] -
Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign ofAshoka. -
![Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according to Major Rock Edict No. 13 of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[156][157]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Territories_conquered_by_the_Dharma_according_to_Ashoka.jpg/200px-Territories_conquered_by_the_Dharma_according_to_Ashoka.jpg)
Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according toMajor Rock Edict No. 13of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[156][157]
![The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[155]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AAiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg&t=hv)
![Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according to Major Rock Edict No. 13 of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[156][157]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ATerritories_conquered_by_the_Dharma_according_to_Ashoka.jpg&t=hv)
Also, in theEdicts of Ashoka,Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains:
The conquest byDharmahas been won here, on the borders, and even six hundredyojanas(5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, beyond there where the four kings namedPtolemy,Antigonos,MagasandAlexanderrule, likewise in the south among theCholas,thePandyas,and as far asTamraparni(Sri Lanka).
— Edicts of Ashoka,13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika.[non-primary source needed]
Ashoka also encouraged the development ofherbal medicine,for men and animals, in their territories:
Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, theSatiyaputras,theKeralaputras,as far asTamraparniand where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals.
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the spread of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such asDharmaraksita,are described inPalisources as leading Greek ( "Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (theMahavamsa,XII[158][non-primary source needed]).
Subhagasena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)
Sophagasenuswas an IndianMauryanruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagasena or Subhashasena inPrakrit.His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes,[citation needed]and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson ofAshoka,orKunala,the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of theHindu Kush,possibly inGandhara.Antiochos III,theSeleucidking, after having made peace withEuthydemusinBactria,went to India in 206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:
He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leavingAndrosthenesofCyzicusthe duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him.
Timeline
- 322 BCE: Chandragupta Mauryaconquers the Nanda Empire,founding Maurya dynasty.[160]
- 317–316 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent.
- 305–303 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya gains territory bydefeating the Seleucid Empire.
- 298–269 BCE: Reign of Bindusara, Chandragupta's son. He conquers parts ofDeccan,southern India.
- 269–232 BCE: The Mauryan Empire reaches its height under Ashoka, Chandragupta's grandson.
- 261 BCE: Ashokaconquers the Kingdom of Kalinga.
- 250 BCE: Ashoka builds Buddhist stupas and erects pillars bearing inscriptions.
- 184 BCE: The empire collapses when Brihadratha, the last emperor, is killed byPushyamitra Shunga,a Mauryan general and the founder of theShunga Empire.
Family tree and List of rulers
See also
Notes
- ^abWhileNath Sen (1999,p. 164, (215) 217) states (p.164) "During the Mauryan period Brahmanism was an important religion" (Nath Sen distinguishes Brahmanism from Hinduism; p. (215) 217: [At the time ofChandragupta II(ca. 380-415 CE) of theGupta Empire] [...] [i]n place of the old sacrificial Brahmanism, Hinduism had appeared "). Others strongly disagree:
- Thapar (1960):"...the Mauryas did not conform to the accepted religion of most royal families of the time, Brahmanism."
- Bronkhorst (2011):
- "We know that Aśoka’s personal leanings were toward Buddhism, and tradition testifies to the fact that all the other rulers of the Maurya empire had strong links with Jainism, sometimes Ajivikism, but never with Brahmanism. A persistent tradition maintains that Candragupta was a Jaina."
- "The picture that is slowly gaining ground in modern research is that the establishment of the Maurya empire spelt disaster for traditional Brahmanism. Brahmins in earlier days performed rituals at the courts of kings in the Brahmanical heartland. This Brahmanical heartland was conquered by rulers from Pāṭaliputra, who had no respect for Brahmanical rituals and needed no Brahmins at their courts."
- "the region of Magadha had not been brahmanized at the time of Candragupta."
- Bronkhorst (2020,p. 68): "The brahmanized regions of north-western India were now governed by rulers who had no sympathy for Brahmins or their sacrificial culture, and whose natural sympathies lay with the religions of Greater Magadha, primarily Jainism, Jivikism, and Buddhism."
- Omvedt (2003,p. 119) "Magadha was considered by Brahmanic literature to be amleccha(barbarian) land where Vedic sacrifices and Brahmanic rituals were not performed.
- ^abJainism:
- Smith (1981,p. 99): "the only direct evidence throwing light [...] is that of Jain tradition [...] it may be that he [Chandragupta] embraced Jainism towards the end of his reign [...] after much consideration I am inclined to accept the main facts as affirmed by tradition [...] no alternative account exists."
- Dalrymple (2009):"It was here, in the third century BC, that the first Emperor of India, Chandragupta Maurya, embraced the Jain religion and died through a self-imposed fast to the death."
- ^abBuddhism:
- Bronkhorst (2020,p. 68): "The brahmanized regions of north-western India were now governed by rulers who had no sympathy for Brahmins or their sacrificial culture, and whose natural sympathies lay with the religions of Greater Magadha, primarily Jainism, Jivikism, and Buddhism."
- ^abAjivikism:
- Bronkhorst (2020,p. 68): "The brahmanized regions of north-western India were now governed by rulers who had no sympathy for Brahmins or their sacrificial culture, and whose natural sympathies lay with the religions of Greater Magadha, primarily Jainism, Jivikism, and Buddhism."
- ^Bronkhorst (2011):
- This incorporation into a larger empire, first presumably by the Nandas, then by the Mauryas, took away all the respect and privileges that Brahmins had so far enjoyed, and might have meant the disappearance of Brahmins as a distinct group of people. The reason [110] why this did not happen is that Brahmanism reinvented itself. Deprived of their earlier privileges, Brahmins made an effort to find new ways to make themselves indispensable for rulers, and to gain the respect of others. "
- "It [118] was because of the Maurya empire that Brahmanism had to reinvent itself. It was because of that empire that Brahmanism transformed itself from a ritual tradition linked to local rulers in a relatively restricted part of India into a socio-political ideology that succeeded in imposing itself on vast parts of South and Southeast Asia, together covering an area larger than the Roman empire ever had."
References
- ^Hermann Kulke 2004,p.69-70.
- ^Stein, Burton (2010),A History of India,John Wiley & Sons, p. 74,ISBN978-1-4443-2351-1,
In the past it was not uncommon for historians to conflate the vast space thus outlined with the oppressive realm described in the Arthashastra and to posit one of the earliest and certainly one of the largest totalitarian regimes in all of history. Such a picture is no longer considered believable; at present what is taken to be the realm of Ashoka is a discontinuous set of several core regions separated by very large areas occupied by relatively autonomous peoples.
- ^ab Ludden, David (2013),India and South Asia: A Short History,Oneworld Publications, pp. 28–29,ISBN978-1-78074-108-6Quote: "A creative explosion in all the arts was a most remarkable feature of this ancient transformation, a permanent cultural legacy. Mauryan territory was created in its day by awesome armies and dreadful war, but future generations would cherish its beautiful pillars, inscriptions, coins, sculptures, buildings, ceremonies, and texts, particularly later Buddhist writers."
- ^abcConingham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015),The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE – 200 CE,Cambridge University Press, pp. 451–466,ISBN978-1-316-41898-7
- ^Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015),The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE – 200 CE,Cambridge University Press, p. 453,ISBN978-1-316-41898-7
- ^Dyson, Tim (2018),A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day,Oxford University Press, pp. 16–17,ISBN978-0-19-882905-8,
Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan 'Empire' which during Ashoka's reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south.
- ^Smith, Vincent Arthur (1920),The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911,Clarendon Press, pp. 104–106
- ^Majumdar, R. C.; Raychaudhuri, H. C.; Datta, Kalikinkar (1950),An Advanced History of India(Second ed.), Macmillan & Company, p. 104
- ^abSchwartzberg, Joseph E.A Historical Atlas of South Asia,2nd ed. (University of Minnesota, 1992), Plate III.B.4b (p.18) and Plate XIV.1a-c (p.145) |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/|date=26 January 2021
- ^abNath Sen 1999,p. 164, (215) 217.
- ^abSmith 1981,p. 99.
- ^abDalrymple 2009.
- ^abKeay 1981,p. 85-86.
- ^abcdBronkhorst 2020,p. 68.
- ^abcdLong 2020,p. 255.
- ^Boyce & Grenet 1991,p. 149.
- ^Avari, Burjor (2007).India, the Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200Archived23 November 2022 at theWayback MachineTaylor & Francis.ISBN0415356156.pp. 188-189.
- ^Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".Social Science History.3(3/4): 132.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR1170959.
- ^Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006)."East-West Orientation of Historical Empires".Journal of World-Systems Research.12(2): 223.ISSN1076-156X.Archived fromthe originalon 20 May 2019.Retrieved16 September2016.
- ^ab Dyson, Tim (2018),A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day,Oxford University Press, pp. 16–17,ISBN978-0-19-882905-8Quote: "Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan 'Empire' which during Ashoka's reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south."
- ^
Ludden, David (2013),India and South Asia: A Short History,Oneworld Publications, pp. 29–30,ISBN978-1-78074-108-6,
The geography of the Mauryan Empire resembled a spider with a small dense body and long spindly legs. The highest echelons of imperial society lived in the inner circle composed of the ruler, his immediate family, other relatives, and close allies, who formed a dynastic core. Outside the core, empire travelled stringy routes dotted with armed cities. Outside the palace, in the capital cities, the highest ranks in the imperial elite were held by military commanders whose active loyalty and success in war determined imperial fortunes. Wherever these men failed or rebelled, dynastic power crumbled.... Imperial society flourished where elites mingled; they were its backbone, its strength was theirs. Kautilya'sArthasastraindicates that imperial power was concentrated in its original heartland, in oldMagadha,where key institutions seem to have survived for about seven hundred years, down to the age of the Guptas. Here, Mauryan officials ruled local society, but not elsewhere. In provincial towns and cities, officials formed a top layer of royalty; under them, old conquered royal families were not removed, but rather subordinated. In mostjanapadas,the Mauryan Empire consisted of strategic urban sites connected loosely to vast hinterlands through lineages and local elites who were there when the Mauryas arrived and were still in control when they left.
- ^Hermann Kulke 2004,pp. xii, 448.
- ^Thapar, Romila(1990).A History of India, Volume 1.Penguin Books. p. 384.ISBN0-14-013835-8.
- ^Keay, John (2000).India: A History.Grove Press. p. 82.ISBN978-0-8021-3797-5.
- ^abR. K. Mookerji 1966,p. 31.
- ^Seleucus Iceded the territories ofArachosia(modern Kandahar),Gedrosia(modernBalochistan), andParopamisadae(orGandhara).Aria(modernHerat) "has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars... on the basis of wrong assessments of the passage of Strabo... and a statement by Pliny" (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p. 594).
- ^John D Grainger 2014,p. 109: Seleucus "must... have held Aria", and furthermore, his "sonAntiochoswas active there fifteen years later ".
- ^Bhandari, Shirin (5 January 2016)."Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road".Roads & Kingdoms.Retrieved19 July2016.
- ^Hermann Kulke 2004,p. 67.
- ^ Dyson, Tim (2018),A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day,Oxford University Press, p. 24,ISBN978-0-19-882905-8Quote: "Yet Sumit Guha considers that 20 million is an upper limit. This is because the demographic growth experienced in core areas is likely to have been less than that experienced in areas that were more lightly settled in the early historic period. The position taken here is that the population in Mauryan times (320–220 BCE) was between 15 and 30 million—although it may have been a little more, or it may have been a little less."
- ^ Dyson, Tim (2018),A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day,Oxford University Press, p. 19,ISBN978-0-19-882905-8Quote: "Accordingly, as tribal societies were encountered by the expanding Indo-Aryan societies, so the evolving caste system provided a framework within which—invariably at a low level—tribal people could be placed. For example, by the time of the Mauryan Empire (c.320–230 bce) the caste system was quite well established and the Aranyachará (i.e. forest people) were grouped with the most despised castes.... The evolution of Indo-Aryan society in the centuries before c.200 bce not only saw increased segregation with respect to caste, it also seems to have seen increased differentiation with respect to gender.... Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women's purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: 'wives are there for having sons'. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were possibly also developing at this time, especially among higher caste people. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was possibly becoming an even more crucial institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of central and eastern India. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day."
- ^"It is doubtful if, in its present shape, [theArthashastra] is as old as the time of the first Maurya ", as it probably contains layers of text ranging from Maurya times till as late as the 2nd century CE. Nonetheless," though a comparatively late work, it may be used... to confirm and supplement the information gleaned from earlier sources ". (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, pp. 246–247)
- ^abcdeIrfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004,p. 14.
- ^abSingh, Upinder (2008).A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century.Pearson Education India.ISBN9788131716779.
- ^"Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903"– via Internet Archive.
- ^Epigraphia Indica Vol.20.Archaeological Survey of India. 1920. p.80.
- ^D. C. Sircar(1968). "The Satavahanas and the Chedis". InR. C. Majumdar(ed.).The Age of Imperial Unity.Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 215.
- ^R. K. Mookerji 1966,p. 14.
- ^abR. K. Mookerji 1966,p. 15.
- ^H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988,p. 140.
- ^R. K. Mookerji 1966,p. 8.
- ^Sugandhi, Namita Sanjay (2008).Between the Patterns of History: Rethinking Mauryan Imperial Interaction in the Southern Deccan.pp. 88–89.ISBN9780549744412.[permanent dead link]
- ^Kosmin 2014,p. 31.
- ^Nath sen, Sailendra (1999).Ancient Indian History and Civilization.Routledge. p. 162.ISBN9788122411980.
- ^Nath sen, Sailendra (1999).Ancient Indian History and Civilization.Routledge. p. 130.ISBN9788122411980.
- ^:"Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth."Plutarch62-3Plutarch 62-3Archived28 October 2008 at theWayback Machine
- ^:"He was of humble Indian to a change of rule." Justin XV.4.15 "Fuit hic humili quidem genere natus, sed ad regni potestatem maiestate numinis inpulsus. Quippe cum procacitate sua Nandrum regem offendisset, interfici a rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate quaesierat. (Ex qua fatigatione cum somno captus iaceret, leo ingentis formae ad dormientem accessit sudoremque profluentem lingua ei detersit expergefactumque blande reliquit. Hoc prodigio primum ad spem regni inpulsus) contractis latronibus Indos ad nouitatem regni sollicitauit."Justin XV.4.15[usurped]
- ^Hermann Kulke 2004,p. 69–70.
- ^Thapar 2013,pp. 362–364.
- ^abSen 1895,pp. 26–32.
- ^Upinder Singh 2008,p. 272.
- ^Mookerji 1988,pp. 28–33.
- ^Hemacandra 1998,pp. 175–188.
- ^Mookerji 1988,p. 33.
- ^Malalasekera 2002,p. 383.
- ^Mookerji 1988,pp. 33–34.
- ^Trautmann 1971,p. 43.
- ^Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.26-27Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966).Chandragupta Maurya and His Times.Motilal Banarsidass Publ.ISBN9788120804050.Archivedfrom the original on 27 November 2016.Retrieved26 November2016.
- ^Mookerji 1988,p. 34.
- ^Roy 2012,p. 62.
- ^abFrom Polis to Empire, the Ancient World, C. 800 B.C.-A.D. 500.Greenwood Publishing. 2002.ISBN0313309426.Retrieved16 August2019.
- ^Kistler, John M. (2007).War Elephants.University of Nebraska Press. p. 67.ISBN978-0803260047.Retrieved16 August2019.
- ^s, deepak (25 October 2016).Indian civilization.deepak shinde.
- ^Kosmin 2014,p. 38.
- ^Arrian."Book 5".Anabasis.
Megasthenes lived withSibyrtius,satrap of Arachosia, and often speaks of his visitingSandracottus,the king of the Indians.
- ^"In the royal residences in India where the greatest of the kings of that country live, there are so many objects for admiration that neitherMemnon's city ofSusawith all its extravagance, nor the magnificence ofEctabanais to be compared with them.... In the parks, tame peacocks and pheasants are kept. "Aelian,Characteristics of animalsbook XIII, Chapter 18,also quoted inThe Cambridge History of India,Volume 1, p411
- ^Romila Thapar (1961),Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas,Volume 5, p.129, Oxford University Press. "The architectural closeness of certain buildings in Achaemenid Iran and Mauryan India have raised much comment. The royal palace at Pataliputra is the most striking example and has been compared with the palaces at Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis."
- ^abcUpinder Singh 2008,p. 331.
- ^Kosmin 2014,p. 32.
- ^Chatterjee, Suhas (1998).Indian Civilization and Culture.M.D. Publications.ISBN9788175330832.
- ^Dikshitar, V. R. Ramachandra (1993).The Mauryan Polity.Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN9788120810235.
- ^R. K. Mookerji 1966,pp. 39–40.
- ^abGeoffrey Samuel 2010,pp. 60.
- ^abRomila Thapar 2004,p. 178.
- ^abR. K. Mookerji 1966,pp. 39–41.
- ^Srinivasachariar 1974,p. lxxxvii.
- ^Vincent Arthur Smith (1920).Asoka, the Buddhist emperor of India.Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 18–19.ISBN9788120613034.
- ^Rajendralal Mitra(1878)."On the Early Life of Asoka".Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.Asiatic Society of Bengal: 10.
- ^Motilal Banarsidass (1993)."The Minister Cāṇakya, from the Pariśiṣtaparvan of Hemacandra".InPhyllis Granoff(ed.).The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories: A Treasury of Jaina Literature.Translated by Rosalind Lefeber. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 204–206.ISBN9788120811508.
- ^abcKosmin 2014,p. 35.
- ^Alain Daniélou 2003,p. 108.
- ^Sircar 1971,p. 167.
- ^William Woodthorpe Tarn(2010).The Greeks in Bactria and India.Cambridge University Press. p. 152.ISBN9781108009416.
- ^Mookerji Radhakumud (1962).Asoka.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 8.ISBN978-81-208-0582-8.Archivedfrom the original on 10 May 2018.
- ^abAlain Daniélou 2003,p. 109.
- ^Eugène Burnouf (1911).Legends of Indian Buddhism.New York: E. P. Dutton. p. 59.
- ^abcdS. N. Sen 1999,p. 142.
- ^"Three Greek ambassadors are known by name: Megasthenes, ambassador to Chandragupta; Deimachus, ambassador toChandragupta'sson Bindusara; and Dyonisius, whom Ptolemy Philadelphus sent to the court of Ashoka, Bindusara's son ", McEvilley, p.367
- ^India, the Ancient Past,Burjor Avari, pp. 108–109
- ^Arthur Llewellyn Basham,History and doctrines of the Ājīvikas: a vanished Indian religion,pp. 138, 146
- ^Anukul Chandra Banerjee,Buddhism in comparative light,p. 24
- ^Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa,Ashoka and his inscriptions,Volume 1, p. 171
- ^Kashi Nath Upadhyaya (1997).Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita.Motilal Banarsidass. p. 33.ISBN9788120808805.
- ^Fitzedward Hall,ed. (1868).The Vishnu Purana.Vol. IV. Translated byH. H. Wilson.Trübner & Co. p. 188.
- ^Allchin, F. R.; Erdosy, George (1995).The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 306.
- ^Edicts of Ashoka,13th Rock Edict, translation S. Dhammika.
- ^Thapar, Romila (2012).Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas.Oxford Scholarship Online.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198077244.003.0031.ISBN9780198077244.
- ^Singh 2012,p. 131, 143.
- ^According to theAshokavadana
- ^Sir John Marshall (1990), "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House,ISBN81-85204-32-2,p. 38
- ^E. Lamotte,History of Indian Buddhism,Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958)
- ^Romila Thapar (1960),Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas,Oxford University Press, p. 200
- ^Kangle, R. P. (1986).A Study.Motilal Banarsidass Publ.ISBN978-81-208-0041-0.
- ^Nath sen, Sailendra (1999).Ancient Indian History and Civilization.Routledge. p. 160.ISBN9788122411980.
- ^Gabriel A, Richard (30 November 2006).The Ancient World:Volume 1 of Soldiers' lives through history.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 28.ISBN9780313333484.
- ^R. C. Majumdar 2003,p. 107.
- ^Kulke, Herman (2004).History of India.Routledge. p. 79.ISBN9780415329200.
- ^abRoger Boesche (2003).The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra.Lexington Books. pp. 67–70.ISBN978-0-7391-0607-5.
- ^Indian History.Allied Publishers. 1988.ISBN9788184245684.
- ^Narain Singh Kalota (1978).India As Described By Megasthenes.
- ^"Explained: History and politics of caste census in Bihar | India News - Times of India".The Times of India.
- ^The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India.Archived4 February 2016 at theWayback MachineUniversity of Michigan.
- ^CNG CoinsArchived27 August 2017 at theWayback Machine
- ^Bronkhorst 2011.
- ^Lal bhargava, Purushottam (1996).Chandragupta Maurya A Gem of Indian History.D.K Printworld. p. 44.ISBN9788124600566.
- ^Majumdar, R. C.;Raychauduhuri, H. C.;Datta, Kalikinkar (1960),An Advanced History of India,London: Macmillan & Company Ltd; New York: St Martin's Press,
If the Jaina tradition is to be believed, Chandragupta was converted to the religion of Mahavira. He is said to have abdicated his throne and passed his last days at Sravana Belgola in Mysore. Greek evidence, however, suggests that the first Maurya did not give up the performance of Brahmanical sacrificial rites and was far from following the Jaina creed ofAhimsaor non-injury to animals. He took delight in hunting, a practice that was continued by his son and alluded to by his grandson in his eighth Rock Edict. It is, however, possible that in his last days he showed some predilection for Jainism...
- ^Sharma, Madhulika (2001).Fire Worship in Ancient India.Publication scheme.ISBN9788186782576.
- ^Hermann Kulke 2004,pp. 64–65.
- ^Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966).Chandragupta Maurya and his times.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 40–50.
There is also no evidence to prove the fact taken for granted without the need of any argument or demonstration by all Jain writers that Chandragupta ever became a convert to their religion after abdication. It is possible they are talking about his great grandson.
- ^John Cort 2010,p. 142.
- ^John Cort 2010,p. 199.
- ^Tukol, T. K.Jainism in South India.Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2016.
- ^S. M. Haldhar (2001).Buddhism in India and Sri Lanka (c. 300 BC to C. 600 AD).Om. p. 38.ISBN9788186867532.
- ^Beni Madhab Barua(1968).Asoka and His Inscriptions.Vol. 1. p. 171.
- ^Jerry Bentley,Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts in Pre-Modern Times(New York: Oxford University Press), 46
- ^Dyson, Tim (2018),A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day,Oxford University Press, p. 24,ISBN978-0-19-882905-8Quote: "Yet Sumit Guha considers that 20 million is an upper limit. This is because the demographic growth experienced in core areas is likely to have been less than that experienced in areas that were more lightly settled in the early historic period. The position taken here is that the population in Mauryan times (320–220 bce) was between 15 and 30 million—although it may have been a little more, or it may have been a little less."
- ^Dyson, Tim (2018),A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day,Oxford University Press, p. 19,ISBN978-0-19-882905-8
- ^"L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p23
- ^"L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p22
- ^Described in Marshallp.25-28 Ashoka pillar.
- ^Ramaprasad, Chanda (1919).Indian Antiquary A Journal Of Oriental Research Vol.48.pp.25-28.
- ^Allen, Charles (2012).Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor.London: Hachette Digital. p. 274.ISBN978-1-408-70388-5.
- ^Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 7.
- ^abcRangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 8.
- ^abMookerji, Radhakumud(1966).Chandragupta Maurya and His Times.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 16–17.ISBN9788120804050.
- ^"Plutarch, Alexander, chapter 1, section 1".www.perseus.tufts.edu.
- ^"(Transitum deinde in Indiam fecit), quae post mortem Alexandri, ueluti ceruicibus iugo seruitutis excusso, praefectos eius occiderat. Auctor libertatis Sandrocottus fuerat, sed titulum libertatis post uictoriam in seruitutem uerterat; 14 siquidem occupato regno populum quem ab externa dominatione uindicauerat ipse seruitio premebat."Justin XV.4.12–13[usurped]
- ^"Molienti deinde bellum aduersus praefectos Alexandri elephantus ferus infinitae magnitudinis ultro se obtulit et ueluti domita mansuetudine eum tergo excepit duxque belli et proeliator insignis fuit. Sic adquisito regno Sandrocottus ea tempestate, qua Seleucus futurae magnitudinis fundamenta iaciebat, Indiam possidebat."Justin XV.4.19[usurped]
- ^"Appian, The Syrian Wars 11".Archivedfrom the original on 3 November 2007.
- ^Bachhofer, Ludwig (1929).Early Indian Sculpture Vol. I.Paris: The Pegasus Press. pp. 239–240.
- ^Page 122: About theMasarh lion:"This particular example of a foreign model gets added support from the male heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath since they also prove beyond doubt that a section of the elite in the Gangetic Basin was of foreign origin. However, as noted earlier, this is an example of the late Mauryan period since this is not the type adopted in any Ashoka pillar. We are, therefore, visualizing a historical situation in India in which the West Asian influence on Indian art was felt more in the late Mauryan than in the early Mauryan period. The term West Asia in this context stands for Iran and Afghanistan, where the Sakas and Pahlavas had their base-camps for eastward movement. The prelude to future inroads of the Indo-Bactrians in India had after all started in the second century B.C."... inGupta, Swarajya Prakash(1980).The Roots of Indian Art: A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan.B.R. Publishing Corporation. pp. 88, 122.ISBN978-0-391-02172-3..
- ^According to Guptathis isa non-Indian face of a foreigner with a conical hat: "If there are a few faces which are nonIndian, such as one head from Sarnath with conical cap ( Bachhofer, Vol. I, Pl. 13 ), they are due to the presence of the foreigners their costumes, tastes and liking for portrait art and not their art styles." inGupta, Swarajya Prakash(1980).The Roots of Indian Art: A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan.B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 318.ISBN978-0-391-02172-3.
- ^Annual Report 1907-08.1911. p. 55.
- ^R. C. Majumdar 2003,p. 105.
- ^Ancient India, (Kachroo, p.196)
- ^The Imperial Gazetteer of India(Hunter, p.167)
- ^The evolution of man and society(Darlington, p.223)
- ^W. W. Tarn (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita",The Journal of Hellenic Studies60,p. 84–94.
- ^Kosmin 2014,p. 37.
- ^"Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (eds. John Bostock, H. T. Riley)".Archived fromthe originalon 28 July 2013.
- ^Vincent A. Smith(1998).Ashoka.Asian Educational Services.ISBN81-206-1303-1.
- ^Walter Eugene Clark(1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology",Classical Philology14(4), pp. 297–313.
- ^"Problem while searching in The Literature Collection".Archivedfrom the original on 13 March 2007.
- ^"The Literature Collection: The deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the learned of Athenæus (volume III): Book XIV".Archivedfrom the original on 11 October 2007.
- ^Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari, Routledge,ISBN0-415-35615-6
- ^Kosmin 2014,p. 57.
- ^Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p.368
- ^Mahavamsachapter XIIArchived5 September 2006 at theWayback Machine
- ^"No document found".www.perseus.tufts.edu.Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2008.
- ^D. C. Ahir (1998).Buddhism in North India and Pakistan.p. 121.
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External links
- Livius.org:Maurya dynasty.Archived26 February 2012 at theWayback Machine.
- Extent of the Empire
- Ashoka's Edicts(archived 28 March 2014)