Medieval warfare

Medieval warfareis the warfare of theMiddle Ages.Technological, cultural, and social advancements had forced a severe transformation in the character of warfare fromantiquity,changingmilitary tacticsand the role ofcavalryandartillery(seemilitary history). In terms of fortification, the Middle Ages saw the emergence of thecastlein Europe, which then spread to theHoly Land(modern day Palestine).

TheBattle of Crécy(1346) between the English and the French in theHundred Years' War.

Organization

Main articles:KnightandInfantry in the Middle Ages

See also:Heavy cavalryandLight cavalry

The medieval knight was usually a mounted and armouredsoldier,often connected withnobilityorroyalty,although (especially in north-eastern Europe) knights could also come from the lower classes, and could even be enslaved persons. The cost of theirarmour,horses,andweaponswas great; this, among other things, helped gradually transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors. During thecrusades,holy orders of Knights fought in the Holy Land (seeKnights Templar,theHospitallers,etc.).

The light cavalry consisted usually of lighter armed and armoured men, who could have lances,javelinsor missile weapons, such asbowsorcrossbows.In much of the Middle Ages, light cavalry usually consisted of wealthy commoners. Later in the Middle Ages, light cavalry would also include sergeants who were men who had trained as knights but could not afford the costs associated with the title. Light cavalry was used as scouts, skirmishers or outflankers. Many countries developed their styles of light cavalries, such as Hungarianmounted archers,Spanishjinetes,Italian and German mounted crossbowmen and Englishcurrours.

The infantry was recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army. Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries. Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers.

Recruiting

Hungarian raids in the 10th century. Before thebattle of Lechfeldin 955 Medieval Europeans were vulnerable from the Nomadic style of war that came from the Hungarians.

In the earliest Middle Ages, it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be.

Typically the feudal armies consisted of a core of highly skilled knights and their household troops, mercenaries hired for the time of the campaign and feudal levies fulfilling their feudal obligations, who usually were little more than rabble. They could, however, be efficient in disadvantageous terrain. Towns and cities could also field militias.

As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen and mercenary armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. It was estimated that the bestinfantrymencame from the younger sons of free land-owningyeomen,such as the English archers and Swiss pikemen. England was one of the most centralized states in the Late Middle Ages, and the armies that fought theHundred Years' Warwere mostly paid professionals.

In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent. Thus thescutagewas introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early 12th century.

As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly onmercenariesto do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy, they came to dominate the armies of the city-states. This made them problematic; while at war they were considerably more reliable than a standing army, at peacetime they proved a risk to the state itself like thePraetorian Guardhad once been.

Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manoeuvre as on battles, since thecondottierirecognized it was more efficient to attack the enemy's ability to wage war rather than his battle forces, discovering the concept ofindirect warfare500 years before Sir BasilLiddell Hart,and attempting to attack the enemy supply lines, his economy and his ability to wage war rather than risking an open battle, and manoeuvre him into a position where risking a battle would have been suicidal. Machiavelli understood thisindirect approachas cowardice.

Fortifications

TheChâteau de Falaisein France.

Celje Castle in Slovenia.

In Europe, breakdowns in centralized power led to the rise of several groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income. Most notably theVikings,Arabs,Mongols,Huns,Cumans,Tartars,andMagyarsraided significantly.As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly, buildingfortificationswas a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region.

These fortifications evolved throughout the Middle Ages, the most important form being thecastle,a structure which has become almost synonymous with the Medieval era in the popular eye. The castle served as a protected place for the local elites. Inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the enemy from the area, or to disrupt the efforts of larger armies to supply themselves in the region by gaining local superiority over foraging parties that would be impossible against the whole enemy host.

Fortifications were a very important part of warfare because they provided safety to the lord, his family, and his servants. They provided refuge from armies too large to face in open battle. The ability of the heavy cavalry to dominate a battle on an open field was useless against fortifications. Buildingsiege engineswas a time-consuming process, and could seldom be effectively done without preparations before the campaign. Many sieges could take months, if not years, to weaken or demoralize the defenders sufficiently. Fortifications were an excellent means of ensuring that the elite could not be easily dislodged from their lands – asCount Baldwin of Hainautcommented in 1184 on seeing enemy troops ravage his lands from the safety of his castle, "they can't take the land with them".

Siege warfare

In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety ofsiege enginesincluding: scaling ladders;battering rams;siege towersand various types ofcatapultssuch as themangonel,onager,ballista,andtrebuchet.Siege techniques also includedminingin which tunnels were dug under a section of the wall and then rapidly collapsed to destabilize the wall's foundation. Another technique was to bore into the enemy walls, however, this was not nearly as effective as other methods due to the thickness of castle walls.

TheWalls of Dubrovnikare a series ofdefensive stone walls,never breached by a hostile army, that have surrounded and protected the maritimecity-stateofDubrovnik(Ragusa), situated in southernCroatia.

Advances in the prosecution ofsiegesencouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular,Medieval fortificationsbecame progressively stronger – for example, the advent of theconcentric castlefrom the period of theCrusades– and more dangerous to attackers – witness the increasing use ofmachicolations,as well the preparation ofhot or incendiary substances.Arrow slits,concealed doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege at this time. Designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances, protecting gates withdrawbridges,portcullisesandbarbicans.Wet animal skins were often draped over gates to repel fire.Moatsand other water defences, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders.

In theMiddle Ages,virtually all large cities hadcity walls–DubrovnikinDalmatiais a well-preserved example – and more important cities hadcitadels,fortsorcastles.Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. In other cases, such as the Ottomansiege of Shkodra,Venetian engineers had designed and installed cisterns that were fed by rain water channeled by a system of conduits in the walls and buildings.Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities likeTáborinBohemia.Against these would be matched theminingskills of teams of trainedsappers,who were sometimes employed by besieging armies.

Until the invention ofgunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics favoured the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defence became less and less effective against a determined siege.

See also:Mining (military)

Relics

The practice of carryingrelicsinto battle is a feature that distinguishes medieval warfare from its predecessors or early modern warfare and possibly inspired by biblical references.The presence of relics was believed to be an important source of supernatural power that served both as a spiritual weapon and a form of defence; the relics of martyrs were considered by SaintJohn Chrysostommuch more powerful than "walls, trenches, weapons and hosts of soldiers"

In Italy, thecarroccioorcarro della guerra,the "war wagon", was an elaboration of this practice that developed during the 13th century. Thecarro della guerraof Milan was described in detail in 1288 byBonvesin de la Rivain his book on the "Marvels of Milan". Wrapped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen that werecaparisonedin white with the red cross ofSaint Ambrose,the city's patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship's mast.

Naval warfare

See also:Byzantine navy

The Byzantine fleet repels the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941. The Byzantinedromonsare rolling over the Rus' vessels and smashing their oars with their spurs.

The waters surrounding Europe can be grouped into two types which affected the design of craft that traveled and therefore the warfare. TheMediterraneanandBlack Seaswere free of large tides, generally calm, and had predictable weather. The seas around the north and west of Europe experienced stronger and less predictable weather. Theweather gauge,the advantage of having a following wind, was an important factor in naval battles, particularly to the attackers. Typicallywesterlies(winds blowing from west to east) dominated Europe, giving naval powers to the west an advantage.Medieval sources on the conduct of medieval naval warfare are less common than those about land-based war. Most medieval chroniclers had no experience of life on the sea and generally were not well informed.Maritime archaeologyhas helped provide information.

Turkish armor during battles of Marica and Kosovo in 1371 and 1389

Early in the medieval period, ships in the context of warfare were used primarily for transporting troops.In the Mediterranean, naval warfare in the Middle Ages was similar to that under late Roman Empire: fleets ofgalleyswould exchange missile fire and then try to board bow first to allowmarinesto fight on deck. This mode of naval warfare remained the same into the early modern period, as, for example, at theBattle of Lepanto.Famous admirals includedRoger of Lauria,Andrea DoriaandHayreddin Barbarossa.

Late medievalmaritime warfare was divided in two distinct regions. In the Mediterranean, galleys were used for raiding along coasts, and in the constant fighting for naval bases. In the Atlantic and Baltic there was greater focus on sailing ships that were used mostly for troop transport, with galleys providing fighting support.Galleys were still widely used in the north and were the most numerous warships used by Mediterranean powers with interests in the north, especially the French and Iberian kingdoms.

Bulkier ships were developed which were primarilysail-driven, although the long lowboard Viking-style rowedlongshipsaw use well into the 15th century. Their main purpose in the north remained the transportation of soldiers to fight on the decks of the opposing ship (as, for example, at theBattle of Svolderor theBattle of Sluys).

Late medieval sailing warships resembled floating fortresses, with towers in thebowsand at thestern(respectively, theforecastleandaftcastle). The large superstructure made these warships quite unstable, but the decisive defeats that the more mobile but considerably lower boarded longships suffered at the hands of high-boarded cogs in the 15th century ended the issue of which ship type would dominate northern European warfare.

Introduction of guns

The introduction of guns was the first step towards major changes in naval warfare, but it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were introduced in the 14th century and consisted of small wrought-iron pieces placed on the open decks and in thefighting tops,often requiring only one or two men to handle them. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock and frighten the enemy before boarding.

Two views of a hand culverin and two small cannons from the 15th century.

As guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just their crews. Since these guns were much heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships, and fire fromgunports,to avoid ships becoming unstable. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships withclinkerplanking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull; clinker-built (or clench-built) ships had much of their structural strength in the outer hull. The solution was the gradual adoption ofcarvel-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship.

The first ships to actually mount heavy cannon capable of sinking ships were galleys, with large wrought-iron pieces mounted directly on the timbers in the bow. The first example is known from a woodcut of a Venetian galley from 1486.Heavy artillery on galleys was mounted in the bow which fit conveniently with the long-standing tactical tradition of attacking head-on and bow-first. The ordnance on galleys was quite heavy from its introduction in the 1480s, and capable of quickly demolishing medieval-style stone walls that still prevailed until the 16th century.

This temporarily upended the strength of older seaside fortresses, which had to be rebuilt to cope with gunpowder weapons. The addition of guns also improved the amphibious abilities of galleys as they could assault supported with heavy firepower, and could be even more effectively defended when beached stern-first.Galleys and similar oared vessels remained uncontested as the most effective gun-armed warships in theory until the 1560s, and in practice for a few decades more, and were considered a grave risk to sailing warships.

Rise of infantry

Main article:Infantry in the Middle Ages

A battle between the Venetian and Holy Roman fleets. Detail of a fresco bySpinello Aretino1407–1408.

In the Medieval period, the mounted cavalry long held sway on the battlefield. Heavily armoured mounted knights represented a formidable foe for reluctant peasant draftees and lightly armoured freemen. To defeat mounted cavalry, infantry used swarms of missiles or a tightly packed phalanx of men, techniques honed in antiquity by the Greeks.

Swiss pikemen

The use of long pikes and densely packed foot troops was not uncommon in the Middle Ages. TheFlemishfootmen at theBattle of the Golden Spursmet and overcame French knights in 1302, as theLombardsdid inLegnanoin 1176 and the Scots held their own against heavily armoured English cavalry. During the St. Louis crusade, dismounted French knights formed a tight lance-and-shield phalanx to repel Egyptian cavalry. The Swiss used pike tactics in the late medieval period. While pikemen usually grouped and awaited a mounted attack, the Swiss developed flexible formations and aggressive manoeuvring, forcing their opponents to respond. The Swiss won atMorgarten,Laupen,Sempach,GrandsonandMurten,and between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe (except the English and Scottish) hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons (e.g., theGerman Landsknechte).

A modern replica of an English longbow.

Welsh and English longbowmen

Main article:English longbow

The Welsh and English longbowmen used a single-piece longbow (but some bows later developed a composite design) to deliver arrows that could penetrate contemporarymailand damage/dentplate armour.The longbow was a difficult weapon to master, requiring long years of use and constant practice. A skilled longbowman could shoot about 12 shots per minute. This rate of fire was far superior to competing weapons like thecrossbowor early gunpowder weapons. The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow, used often by urban militias andmercenaryforces. The crossbow had greater penetrating power and did not require the extended years of training. However, it lacked the rate of fire of the longbow.

AtCrécyandAgincourtbowmen unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights. At Crécy, even 5,000 Genoese crossbowmen could not dislodge them from their hill. At Agincourt, thousands of French knights were brought down by armour-piercingbodkin pointarrows and horse-maimingbroadheads.Longbowmen decimated an entire generation of the French nobility.

Transition to gunpowder warfare

Further information:Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages

In 1326 the earliest known European picture of a gun appeared in a manuscript by Walter de Milemete.In 1350,Petrarchwrote that the presence of cannons on the battlefield was 'as common and familiar as other kinds of arms'.

Early artillery played a limited role in theHundred Years' War,and it became indispensable in theItalian Warsof 1494–1559, marking the beginning ofearly modern warfare.Charles VIII, during hisinvasion of Italy,brought with him the first truly mobile siege train:culverinsandbombardsmounted on wheeled carriages, which could be deployed against an enemy stronghold immediately after arrival.

Strategy and tactics

Medieval campaigns were planned with strategy in mind, such as maintaining unity in morale, planning troop movements, and mount offensives with numerical advantages.Medieval armies used strategic deception, such as misleading troop movements, to take opposing armies by surprise. They would also spread misinformation regarding army size and provisions.

One common tactic used in medieval warfare was raiding; this benefitted the attacking army by with new supplies and wealth while damaging the target's resources.

De re militari

si vis pacem, para bellum
If you want peace, prepare for war

Vegetius,De re militari,preface to book 3.

Publius Flavius Vegetius RenatuswroteDe re militari(Concerning Military Matters)possibly in the late 4th century.Described by historianWalter Goffartas "the bible of warfare throughout the Middle Ages",De re militariwas widely distributed through the Latin West. WhileWestern Europerelied on a single text for the basis of its military knowledge, theByzantine EmpireinSoutheastern Europehad a succession of military writers.Though Vegetius had no military experience andDe re militariwas derived from the works ofCatoandFrontinus,his books were the standard for military discourse in Western Europe from their production until the 16th century.

De re militariwas divided into five books: who should be a soldier and the skills they needed to learn, the composition and structure of anarmy,field tactics, how to conduct and withstandsieges,and the role of thenavy.According to Vegetius,infantrywas the most important element of an army because it was cheap compared tocavalryand could be deployed on any terrain.One of the tenets he put forward was that a general should only engage in battle when he was sure of victory or had no other choice.As archaeologist Robert Liddiard explains, "Pitched battles,particularly in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, were rare. "

Although his work was widely reproduced, and over 200 copies, translations, and extracts survive today, the extent to which Vegetius affected the actual practice of warfare as opposed to its concept is unclear because of his habit of stating the obvious.HistorianMichael Clanchynoted "the medieval axiom that laymen are illiterate and its converse that clergy are literate",so it may be the case that few soldiers read Vegetius' work. While their Roman predecessors were well-educated and had been experienced in warfare, the European nobility of the early Medieval period were not renowned for their education, but from the 12th century, it became more common for them to read.

Some soldiers regarded the experience of warfare as more valuable than reading about it; for example,Geoffroi de Charny,a 14th century knight who wrote about warfare, recommended that his audience should learn by observing and asking advice from their superiors. Vegetius remained prominent in medieval literature on warfare, although it is uncertain to what extent his work was read by the warrior class as opposed to the clergy.In 1489, KingHenry VII of Englandcommissioned the translation ofDe re militariinto English, "so every gentleman born to arms and all manner of men of war, captains, soldiers, victuallers and all others would know how they ought to behave in the feats of wars and battles".

Supplies and logistics

13th century Germangreat helmwith a flat top to the skull

Byzantineklivanion

SpanishAlmogávar

Medieval warfare largely predated the use ofsupply trains,which meant that armies had to acquire food supplies from the territory they were passing through. This meant that large-scalelootingby soldiers was unavoidable, and was actively encouraged in the 14th century with its emphasis onchevauchéetactics, where mounted troops would burn and pillage enemy territory in order to distract and demoralize the enemy while denying them their supplies.

Through the medieval period, soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided instead of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.

In 1294, the same yearJohn II de Balliol of Scotlandrefused to supportEdward I of England's planned invasion of France, Edward I implemented a system inWalesandScotlandwheresheriffswould acquire foodstuffs, horses and carts from merchants withcompulsory salesat prices fixed below typical market prices under the Crown's rights ofprise and purveyance.These goods would then be transported toRoyal Magazinesin southern Scotland and along the Scottish border where Englishconscriptsunder his command could purchase them. This continued during theFirst War of Scottish Independencewhich began in 1296, though the system was unpopular and was ended with Edward I's death in 1307.

Starting under the rule ofEdward IIin 1307 and ending under the rule ofEdward IIIin 1337, the English instead used a system where merchants would be asked to meet armies with supplies for the soldiers to purchase. This led to discontent as the merchants saw an opportunity toprofiteer,forcing the troops to pay well above normal market prices for food.

As Edward III went to war with France in theHundred Years' War(starting in 1337), the English returned to a practice of foraging and raiding to meet their logistical needs. This practice lasted throughout the war, extending through the remainder of Edward III's reign into the reign ofHenry VI.

Regional examples

Arabs

Main article:Early Muslim conquests

14th century Arab stylebattering ram

The initialMuslim conquestsbegan in the 7th century after the death of theIslamicprophetMuhammad,and were marked by a century of rapidArabexpansion beyond theArabian Peninsulaunder theRashidunandUmayyad Caliphates.Under theRashidun,the Arabsconquered the Persian Empire,along withRoman SyriaandRoman Egyptduring theByzantine-Arab Wars,all within just seven years from 633 to 640. Under the Umayyads, the Arabs annexedNorth Africaandsouthern Italyfrom the Romans and the Arab Empire soon stretched fromparts of the Indian subcontinent,acrossCentral Asia,the Middle East, North Africa, andsouthern Italy,to theIberian Peninsulaand thePyrenees.

The early Arab army mainly consisted ofcamel-mountedinfantry,alongside a fewBedouincavalry.Constantly outnumbered by their opponent, they did, however, possess the advantage of strategic mobility, their camel-borne nature allowing them to constantly outmaneuver larger Byzantine and Sassanid armies to take prime defensive positions. TheRashiduncavalry, while lacking the number and mounted archery skill of their Roman and Persian counterparts was for the most part skillfully employed, and played a decisive role in many crucial battles such asBattle of Yarmouk.During the 7th century, Arab armies employed weapons such as swords, spears, iron mace and lances. For protection, they used shields and wore helmets and coats of mail, although the latter was extremely rare. The bow and arrow was also utilized. Also, after thenaval siege of Constantinople in the 670s,they started to employgreek fire.

In contrast to theRomanandPersian armyat the time both had large numbers ofheavy infantryandheavy cavalry(cataphractsandclibanarii) that were better equipped, heavily protected, and were more experienced and disciplined. The Arab invasions came at a time when both ancient powers were exhausted from the protractedByzantine–Sassanid Wars,particularly the bitterly foughtByzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628which had brought both empires close to collapse. Also, the typically multi-ethnic Byzantine force was always wracked by dissension and lacked a unity of command, a similar situation also being encountered among the Sassanids who had been embroiled in a bitter civil war for a decade before the coming of the Arabs. In contrast, theRidda Warswhich preceded the Arab conflicts with both the Sasanids and the Byzantines, had forged theCaliphate's army into a united and loyal fighting force.

Vikings

Main article:Viking invasions

Viking fleetlanding at Dublin,841

TheVikingswere a feared force in Europe because of their savagery and speed of their attacks. Whilst seaborne raids were nothing new at the time, the Vikings refined the practice to a science through their shipbuilding, tactics and training.Unlike other raiders, the Vikings made a lasting impact on the face of Europe. During the Viking age, their expeditions, frequently combining raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish Empire, the British Isles, the Baltic region, Russia, and both Muslim and Christian Iberia. Many served as mercenaries, and the famedVarangian Guard,serving the Emperor of Constantinople, was drawn principally of Scandinavian warriors.

Norwegian Vikings' defeat at theBattle of Stamford Bridge,1066

Vikinglongshipswere swift and easily manoeuvered; they could navigate deep seas or shallow rivers,and could carrywarriorsthat could be rapidly deployed directly onto land due to the longships being able to land directly. The longship was the enabler of the Viking style of warfare that was fast and mobile, relying heavily on the element of surprise.The usual method was to approach a target with the element of surprise and then retire swiftly usingguerrilla-style fighting. The fully armoured Viking raider would wear an iron helmet and a mail hauberk, and fight with a combination of axe, sword, shield, spear or great "Danish" two-handed axe, although the typical raider would be unarmoured, carrying only a bow and arrows, aseax,a shield and spear. European countries with a weak system of government would be unable to organize a suitable response and would naturally suffer the most to Viking raiders. Viking raiders always had the option to fall back in the face of a superior force or stubborn defence and then reappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases. As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the "Great Heathen Army"that ravagedAnglo-Saxon Englandin the 9th century. In time, the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for further expansion later.

After the Vikings consolidated their kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, this period marks the end of significant raider activity both for plunder or conquest; adapting a more continental European tradition of warfare, whilst retaining an emphasis on naval power – the "Viking"clinker-built warshipwas used in the war until the 14th century. However, developments in shipbuilding elsewhere removed the advantage they previously enjoyed at sea, whilst castle building throughout frustrated and eventually ended Viking raids.

The Scandinavian armies of theHigh Middle Agesfollowed the usual pattern of the Northern European armies, but with a stronger emphasis on infantry. The terrain of Scandinavia favoured heavy infantry, and whilst the nobles fought mounted in the continental fashion, the Scandinavian peasants formed a well-armed and well-armoured infantry, of which approximately 30% to 50% would be archers or crossbowmen. Thecrossbow,theflatbowand thelongbowwere especially popular in Sweden and Finland. Thechainmail,thelamellar armourand thecoat of plateswere the usual Scandinavian infantry armour before the era of plate armour.

Mongols

Main articles:Mongol invasionsandTatar invasions

During TheMongol invasion of Europe,Tatars,under the leadership ofKadan,experienced a major failure in March 1242 atKlis Fortressin southernCroatia.

By 1241, having conquered large parts of Russia, the Mongols continued the invasion of Europe with a massive three-pronged advance, following the fleeingCumans,who had established an uncertain alliance with King Bela IV ofHungary.They first invadedPoland,and finally, Hungary, culminating in the crushing defeat of the Hungarians in theBattle of Mohi.The Mongol aim seems to have consistently been to defeat the Hungarian-Cuman alliance. The Mongols raided across the borders to Austria and Bohemia in the summer when the Great Khan died, and the Mongol princes returned home to elect a newGreat Khan.

TheGolden Hordewould frequently clash with Hungarians, Lithuanians and Poles in the thirteenth century, with two large raids in the 1260s and 1280s respectively. In 1284 the Hungarians repelled the last major raid into Hungary, and in 1287 the Poles repelled a raid against them. The instability in the Golden Horde seems to have quieted the western front of the Horde. Also, the large scale invasions and raiding that had previously characterized the expansion of the Mongols was cut short probably in some part due to the death of the last great Mongol leader,Tamerlane.

The Hungarians and Poles had responded to the mobile threat by extensive fortification-building, army reform in the form of better-armoured cavalry, and refusing battle unless they could control the site of the battlefield to deny the Mongols local superiority. The Lithuanians relied on their forested homelands for defence and used their cavalry for raiding into Mongol-dominated Russia. When attacking fortresses they would launch dead or diseased animals into fortresses to help spread disease.

Turks and Central Asia

An earlyTurkicgroup, theSeljuks,were known for their cavalry archers. These fierce nomads were often raiding empires, such as theByzantine Empire,and they scored several victories using mobility and timing to defeat the heavycataphractsof the Byzantines.

One notable victory was atManzikert,where conflict among the generals of the Byzantines gave the Turks the perfect opportunity to strike. They hit the cataphracts with arrows, and outmanoeuvred them, then rode down their less mobile infantry with light cavalry that usedscimitars(in use since the 9th century).When gunpowder was introduced, theOttoman Turksof theOttoman Empirehired the mercenaries that used the gunpowder weapons and obtained their instruction for theJanissaries.Out of these Ottoman soldiers rose the Janissaries (yeni ceri;"new soldier" ), from which they also recruited many of their heavy infantry. Along with the use of cavalry and early grenades, the Ottomans mounted an offensive in the early Renaissance period andattacked Europe,takingConstantinopleby massed infantry assaults.

Like many other nomadic peoples, the Turks featured a core of heavy cavalry from the upper classes. These evolved into the Sipahis (feudal landholders similar to western knights and Byzantinepronoiai) and Qapukulu (door slaves,taken from youth like Janissaries and trained to be royal servants and elite soldiers, mainly cataphracts).

Already by the late 13th century, theKhilji dynastyutilized several siege technologies such astrebuchets,ballistasand wooden parapets by their war engineers. In order to breach a fortification'scurtain walls,long earthen-ramps were used to fill upmoats.In ranged military techniques, they used the powerful war-horses from Central Asia with mounted archers.

Equipment

Main article:List of medieval weapons

Replica of 12th century Serbian medieval armor

A varlet orsquirecarrying ahalberdwith a thick blade; and archer, in fighting dress, drawing the string of his crossbow with a double-handled winch. From theminiaturesof the "Jouvencel", andFroissart'sChronicles.Imperial Library of Paris.

15th century armor from Germany

Weapons

Medieval weapons consisted of many different types of ranged and hand-held objects:

• Melee
  • Battleaxe
    • Horseman's pick
  • Blades
    • Arming sword
    • Dagger
    • Knife
    • Longsword
    • Messer
  • Blunt weapons
    • Club
    • Mace
    • War hammer
  • Polearm
    • Halberd
    • Lance
    • Military fork,the weaponizedPitchfork
    • Pollaxe
    • Spear
• Ranged
  • Bow
  • Longbow
  • Crossbow
  • Throwing axe
  • Throwing spearandJavelin
  • Sling

Armour

• Body armour
  • Leather
  • Fabric
  • Chain mail
  • Brigandine
  • Plate
• Shield
• Helmet

Artillery and Siege engine

• Battering ram
• Catapult
• Trebuchet
• Ballista
• Siege tower

Animals

• Camels in warfare
• Dogs in warfare
• Horses in warfareandHorses in the Middle Ages
• War elephant
• War pigs

See also

• Endemic warfare
• Great Stirrup Controversy
• Horses in warfare
• Slighting
• Timeline of women in Medieval warfare

References

• Archdeacon, Thomas of Split(2006).History of the Bishops of Salona and Split – Historia Salonitanorum atque Spalatinorum pontificum(in Latin and English). Budapest: Central European University Press.ISBN978-963-7326-59-2.
• DeVries, Kelly(1992),Military Medieval Technology,Broadview Press,ISBN0-921149-74-3
• Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (1999), "Naval Warfare after the Viking Age,c.1100–1500 ", inKeen, Maurice(ed.),Medieval Warfare: A History,Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.230–252,ISBN0-19-820639-9
• Gillingham, John (1992), "William the Bastard at War", in Strickland, Matthew (ed.),Anglo-Norman warfare: Studies in Late Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Military Organization and Warfare,Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, pp.143–160,ISBN0-85115-327-5
• Glete, Jan,Warfare at Sea, 1500–1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe.Routledge, London. 2000.ISBN0-415-21455-6
• Goffart, Walter(1977), "The date and purpose of Vegetius'De Re Militari",Traditio,xxxiii:65–100,doi:10.1017/S0362152900009077,JSTOR27831025,S2CID151406462
• Guilmartin, John Francis,Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century.Cambridge University Press, London. 1974.
• Hattendorf, John B. & Unger, Richard W. (editors),War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.Woodbridge, Suffolk. 2003.ISBN0-85115-903-6[1]
• Liddiard, Robert (2005),Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500,Macclesfield: Windgather Press Ltd,ISBN0-9545575-2-2
• Lehmann, L. Th.,Galleys in the Netherlands.Meulenhoff, Amsterdam. 1984.ISBN90-290-1854-2
• Marsden, Peter,Sealed by Time: The Loss and Recovery of the Mary Rose.The Archaeology of theMary Rose,Volume 1. The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth. 2003.ISBN0-9544029-0-1
• Nicholson, Helen (2004),Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe, 300–1500,Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,ISBN0-333-76330-0
• Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus (1996), Milner, N. P. (ed.),Vegetius: epitome of military science,Translated Texts for Historians, vol. xvi, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press
• Rodger, Nicholas A. M., "The Development of Broadside Gunnery, 1450–1650."Mariner's Mirror82 (1996), pp. 301–324.
• Rodger, Nicholas A. M.,The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649.W.W. Norton & Company, New York. 1997.ISBN0-393-04579-X
• Laury Sarti, "Perceiving War and the Military in Early Christian Gaul (ca. 400–700 A.D.)" (= Brill's Series on the Early Middle Ages, 22), Leiden/Boston 2013,ISBN978-9004-25618-7.

Further reading

• Contamine, Philippe.War in the Middle Ages.Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984.
• Creveld, Martin Van.Technology and War: From 2000 BC to present,1989.
• France, John (1999),Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000–1300,London: Cornell University Press,ISBN978-0-8014-8607-4
• Keegan, John.The face of battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme.London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1988.
• Keen, Maurice.Medieval Warfare: A History.Oxford University Press, 1999.
• H. W. Koch:Medieval Warfare.Bison Books Limited, London, 1978,ISBN978-0-86124-008-1
• Kosztolnyik, Z.J.Hungary in the thirteenth century.New York: Columbia University Press: Stackpole Books, 1996. (Parts of which are available online)
• McNeill, William Hardy.The pursuit of power: technology, armed force, and society since A.D. 1000.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
• Oman, Charles William Chadwick.A history of the art of war in the Middle Ages.London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1998.
• De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History
• Parker, Geoffrey.The Military Revolution: Military innovation and the Rise of The West,1988.
• Titterton, James,Deception in Medieval Warfare.Boydell & Brewer, 2022,ISBN9781783276783

External links

• Medieval WarfareSiege warfare, open battles, weapons, armour and fighting techniques.
• Database of thousands of English soldiers during the later medieval period
• Medieval History Database (MHDB), which includes medieval military records
• Guide to researching records of medieval soldiers, from the British National Archives site