Wikipedia

Mellah

Amellah(Arabic:ملاح,romanized:Mallāḥ,lit. 'salt' or 'saline area';[1]andHebrew:מלאח) is the place of residence historically assigned to Jewish communities in Morocco.[1]

The central street of theMellahof Fez,with distinctive domestic architecture of former Jewish houses

The urbanmellah,as it exists in numerous cities and large towns, is aJewish quarterenclosed by a wall and afortified gateway,typically near the residence of the sultan or governor.[1]In cities, the mellah was usually situated near theqaṣba(citadel), the royal palace, or the residence of the governor;[1]some residents of the mellah held senior administrative positions and had to be available.[1][2]

The ruralmellah,as it exists or existed in the mountainous regions of theAtlasand theRifand in the plains regions reaching to the Sahara, is a relatively isolated open village inhabited exclusively by Jews.[1]These villages existed at a distance from the nearestqṣarorqaid.[1]

Starting in the 15th century inFesand especially since the beginning of the 19th century elsewhere,mellahdistricts were established in many Moroccan cities for the Jewish communities to live in.[3][1]The namemellahderives from a localtoponymin Fes which became the name of the first separate Jewish district in Morocco (theMellah of Fez) created in that city during the 15th century.[4]Haim Zafraninotes that the institution of themellahwas only imposed on some communities and only as of relatively recently in Moroccan history, and that segregation was not the rule in Islamic lands as it was in Christian lands.[1]

History

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Origins of the firstMellahin Fez (15th century)

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See also:Mellah of Fez

The firstMellahof Morocco was created in the city ofFez.Fez had long hosted the largest and one of the oldestJewish communities in Morocco,present since the city's foundation by theIdrisids(in the late 8th or early 9th century).[5][6]Since the time ofIdris II(early 9th century) a Jewish community was concentrated in the neighbourhood known asFoundouk el-Yihoudi( "Caravanseraiof the Jew ") nearBab Guissain the northeast of the city.[4][5][6]Nonetheless, historical evidence also shows that the Jewish population was widely distributed in many parts of the old city (Fes el Bali) alongside the Muslim population, including near theUniversity of al-Qarawiyyinin the heart of the city.[7][4]

Bab el-Mellah, the historic entrance to the JewishMellah of Fez

In 1276 theMarinid sultanAbu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-HaqqfoundedFes el-Jdid,a new fortified administrative city to house their troops and theroyal palace.[5][8]The city included a southern district, known asHims,which was initially inhabited by Muslimgarrisons,particularly the Sultan'smercenarycontingents ofSyrianarchers, which were later disbanded.[5][9][8]

The same district, however, was also known by the nameMellah(Arabic:ملاح,lit. 'salt' or 'saline area') due to either a saline water source in the area or to the presence of a former salt warehouse.[4][6][8]It was this name which was later retained as the name of the subsequent Jewish quarter in the area.[5]Afterwards, the name came to be associated by analogy with similar districts that were later created in other cities such asMarrakesh.[10][11][6][4]

The namemellahthus originally had no negative connotation but was rather just a local toponym.[4]Nonetheless, over generations a number of legends andpopular etymologiescame to explain the origin of the word as a "salted, cursed ground" or a place where the Jews were forced to "salt" the heads of decapitated rebels.[4]

Both the exact reasons and the exact date for the creation of a separate JewishMellah of Fezare not firmly agreed upon by all scholars. Historical accounts confirm that in the mid-14th century the Jews of Fez were still living in Fes el-Bali but that by the end of the 16th century they were well-established in the Mellah of Fes el-Jdid.[5]Some authors argue that the transfer likely happened in stages across the Marinid period (late 13th to 15th centuries), particularly following episodes of violence or repression against Jews in the old city.[4]The urban fabric of the Mellah appears to have developed progressively and it's possible that a small Jewish population settled here right after the foundation of Fes el-Jdid and that other Jews fleeing the old city joined them later. Some scholars, citing historical Jewish chronicles, attribute the date of the move more specifically to the "rediscovery" of Idris II's body inhis zawiyaat the center of the old city (Fes el-Bali) in 1437.[12]The surrounding area, located in the middle of the city's main commercial districts where Jewish merchants were quite active, was turned into ahorm(sanctuary) where non-Muslims were not allowed to enter, resulting in the expulsion of the Jewish inhabitants and businesses there.[4][12]Many other scholars date the move generally to the mid-15th century.[6][13]

In any case, the transfer (whether progressive or sudden) occurred with some violence and hardship.[12]Many Jewish households chose to convert (at least officially) rather than leave their homes and their businesses in the heart of the old city, resulting in a growing group referred to asal-Baldiyyin(Muslim families of Jewish origin, often retaining Jewish surnames).[13]

Jewish houses in theMellah of Fez(photographed in 1932)

Broader political motivations for moving the Jewish community to Fes el-Jdid, closer to the royal palace, may have included the rulers' desire to take more direct advantage (or control) of their artisan skills and of their commercial relations with Jewish communities in Europe and other countries (which, by extension, could also be used for diplomatic purposes).[6][4]The Mellah's Jewish cemetery was even established on land which was donated to the Jewish community by a Marinid princess named Lalla Mina in the 15th century.[8][6]The Mellah's location next to the royal palace, within the more heavily fortified Fes el-Jdid, may have also been intended to better protect the Jewish community from the larger and more restive population of the old city; a pattern that would be repeated for futuremellahs in other cities.[1]

Despite the more secure location, however, disasters still occasionally struck the community and its district. The 15th century was also a time of relative political instability, with theWattasid vizierstaking over effective control from the Marinid dynasty and competing with other local factions in Fez.[12]In 1465, the Mellah was attacked by the Muslim population of Fes el-Bali during arevolt led by theshurafa(noblesharifianfamilies) against the Marinid sultanAbd al-Haqq IIand his JewishvizierHarun ibn Battash.[13][4]The attack resulted in thousands of Jewish inhabitants being killed, with many others having to openly renounce their faith. The community took at least a decade to recover from this, only growing again under the rule of the Wattasid sultanMuhammad al-Shaykh(1472-1505).[13]

Major changes in the Jewish population also took place when in 1492 the Spanish crownexpelled all Jews from Spain,withPortugal doing the samein 1497. The following waves ofSpanish Jewsmigrating to Fez andNorth Africaincreased the Jewish population and also altered its social, ethnic, and linguistic makeup.[13]The influx of migrants also revitalized Jewish cultural activity in the following years, while splitting the community along ethnic lines for many generations.[13]In Fez, for example, theMegorashimof Spanish origin retained their heritage and their Spanish language while the indigenous MoroccanToshavim,who spokeArabicand were ofArabandBerberheritage, followed their own traditions. Members of the two communities worshiped in separatesynagoguesand were even buried separately. It was only in the 18th century that the two communities eventually blended together, withArabiceventually becoming the main language of the entire community while the Spanish (Sephardic)minhagbecame dominant in religious practice; a situation which was repeated elsewhere in Morocco, with the notable exception of the Marrakesh community.[12][14]: 36 

16th–18th centuries

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Further information:Mellah of Marrakesh
A market street in theMellah of Marrakeshtoday
TheSlat al-Azama SynagogueinMarrakesh

For a while, the mellah of Fez remained the only one. The second mellah was only created in the second half of the 16th century in Marrakesh, which by then had replaced Fez as the capital of Morocco under the newSaadian dynasty.Here too the Jewish population of the city had lived alongside the Muslim population. Many of them had come from the Atlas Mountain regions and from the nearby city ofAghmat,where a much older Jewish community had already existed.[1]

The Jewish district at the time was concentrated in what is now theMouassine neighbourhood.In 1557-58 CE sultanMoulay Abdallah al-Ghalibordered that the Jewish population of the city relocate from here to an area next to the royalKasbah(citadel), and construction of the newMellah of Marrakeshwas probably finished around 1562-63.[10]: 363–364 [15]: 258 The political motivations for this may have been similar to those of the Marinids in creating the Mellah of Fez, which served as a precedent followed by the Saadian dynasty.[10]Additionally, however, Moulay Abdallah appeared to have been planning the creation of new "model" Muslim neighbourhoods in the city, centered around the newMouassine Mosquewhich he immediately built on the newly-liberated land of the old Jewish neighbourhood.[15][10]Another factor for the move may have been the rapid growth of the Jewish population due to the influx of Jewish migrants from Fez and other towns seeking economic opportunities in the capital.[10]Incidentally, the new Mellah was indeed quite large and functioned as a city unto itself, with its own services and facilities.[10][15]Despite this, some historical references indicate that Jews may have still been living in other parts of the city in the decades after the Mellah's creation.[10]

A Frenchman, who was held captive in Morocco from 1670 to 1681, wrote: "In Fez and in Morocco [that is, Marrakesh], the Jews are separated from the inhabitants, having their own quarters set apart, surrounded by walls of which the gates are guarded by men appointed by the King... In the other towns, they are intermingled with theMoors."[1]In 1791, a European traveller described the Marrakeshmellah:"It has two large gates, which are regularly shut every evening about nine o'clock, after which time no person whatever is permitted to enter or go out... till... the following morning. The Jews have a market of their own...".[citation needed]

The third mellah of Morocco wasn't created until 1682, when theAlaouitesultanMoulay Isma'ilmoved the Jewish population ofMeknes,his new capital, to a new district on the southwest side of the city, next to the vastnew royal citadelthat he was building for himself there.[1][16]: 234 [6]

In Fez, the 17th century saw a significant influx of Jews from theTadlaregion and from theSous Valleyarriving under the reigns of theAlaouitesultansMoulay RashidandMoulay Isma'il,respectively.[5]A serious disaster, however, took place in 1790 to 1792 during a period of general turmoil for the city under SultanMoulay Yazid.[5]During these two years the sultan forced the entire Jewish community to move to the outlyingKasbah Cherardaon the other side of Fes el-Jdid.[12]The Mellah was occupied by tribal troops allied to him, its synagogue was replaced by a mosque, and the Jewish cemetery and its contents were moved to a cemetery near Bab Guissa. Moreover, Moulay Yazid permanently reduced the size of the district by demolishing the old city walls around it and rebuilding them along a much smaller perimeter.[4][5]It was only after the sultan's death that the chief Muslimqadi(judge) of Fez ordered the Mellah to be restored to the Jewish community, along with the demolition of the mosque built by Yazid's troops.[12]

19th century

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A Jewish house inEssaouira,byDarondeau(1807–1841)

At the beginning of the 19th century, around 1807, sultanSulaymanforced Jews to move tomellahsin the towns of the coastal region, inRabat,Salé,Essaouira,andTetouan.(In Tetouan, the Spanish wordjuderíawas later used as the name of the district.) The mellah in Rabat was established in 1808 by Sultan Mawlay Sulaiman; this separated the Jewish and Muslim people who had lived together in a shared area of the city.[17][1]In Salé, the new Jewish quarter was a long avenue with a total of 200 houses, 20 shops and trading booths, two kilns and two mills. In 1865, themellahof Essaouira, having become over-populated, was permitted to extend.

During this century, the fortunes of the Jewish community of Fez in particular improved considerably as the expansion of contact and trade with Europe allowed the Jewish merchant class to place themselves at the center of international trade networks in Morocco.[12]This also led to a greater social openness and a shift in tastes and attitudes, especially among richer Jews, who built luxurious residences in the upper parts of the Mellah there.[12]

20th century onwards

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In the early twentieth century affluent Jews started to move to the new neighborhoods (Villes nouvelles) planned along European urban schemes, leaving in the mellahs only the elderly and the poorest families.[18]

Since theestablishmentof theState of Israelin 1948, almost all Moroccan Jews, for a variety of reasons, have emigrated eitherto the new Jewish stateor to countries likeFranceandCanada—some in government-coordinated programs such asOperation Yachin,[19]: 165 some fleeing persecution, some for religious reasons, and some encouraged by theJewish Agency.As a result, nowadaysmellahsare only inhabited by Muslims, the few remaining Jews have moved to modern quarters of Moroccan towns. The changing economy of Morocco has also meant that the majority of Moroccan Jews now live in the modern metropolis ofCasablanca,with an estimated 5,000 living there in 1997 (with only 150 living in Fez, by comparison).[20]

Most of the Jews ofEssaouiraleft after 1948.[21]Due to poor drainage and invasive seawater, abandoned buildings fell into disrepair and dilapidation, as seen in this image from 2009.[21]

In Marrakesh, parts of the mellah are showing signs of the gentrification in the 21st century. Only three Jewish families remain in the Mellah, with one of them taking care of theSlat al-Azama Synagogue,one of the few remaining in the area.[22]The Mellah of Fez faces a similar fate; however, it is currently undergoing renovation thanks to UNESCO funding.[23]

The legacy of the Moroccan Jewish districts on commerce remain, as the markets constructed and brought alive by Jewish merchants not only exist as of 2014 but still in the lively forms they served in previous centuries for the Jewish communities.[24]The former mellahs continue to be visited as historical sites. One writer notes: "The quarters’ squalor still exists, but they’re also picturesque and bustling — and that, too, speaks to Morocco’s vibrant Jewish past."[24]

Culture

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A preserved synagogue inSefrou

While the settling location of Jews was by Muslim rulers was typically imposed, the mellah existed in a relatively autonomous fashion, with Jews building and sustaining their own communities within the walls of their quarter. Indeed, there was resistance to forced relocation, but ultimately the Jewish mellah became a sanctified space that the Jews had pride for.[25]

"The one gate that gave way to the medina, which could have easily been repudiated as an emblem of imprisonment, instead came to be treated as an object of reverence by the mellah ’s inhabitants, as we see in this description from the early twentieth century:If one stops for a moment in front of this gate, one sees a curious thing: All who pass, children, beggars, peddlers driving their donkeys loaded with merchandise, old women, hunched-over men, all approach this dusty wall and press their lips against it with as much fervor as if they were kissing the holy Torah. "[14]: 34 

The mellahs of Morocco primarily came about as Jews migrated to Morocco after being expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during theSpanish Inquisition.[22]There were two primary justifications given for mellahization. First, these Jewish quarters were often in close proximity to the ruling local powers, offering a form of protection for the Jews. This explanation also addresses the resulting effective authority over differing religious populations; if all the Jews are physically together, it is easier to maintain effective muslim rule, assess taxes, and keep count of the community. The second justification of cause for the institution of the mellah is the idea that mellahs were a "collective punishment for specific transgressions." Jews were associated with ethical deviance, physical malformation, and disease and so were separated from the Christian and Muslim populations.[14]: 21  Organization relative to the city as a whole gives insight into how Jews were situated compared to the Muslim majority and how relevant these justifications are to specific mellahs. As Gilson Milleret alwrite:

"Sometimes the quarter is contained within the larger city and forms a microcosm of it, such as the Jewish quarter of Tetuan; at other times, it is removed from the molecular city and attached to the royal enclave, as in Fez. The siting of the quarter invites speculation about its origins and the relationship between the Jewish minority and the Muslim majority. Was the purpose of the quarter to isolate its inhabitants, to safeguard them, or both? In Fez, the proximity of the mellah to the royal palace is often read as a sign of dependency of the Jews on the power and protection of the ruling sovereign."[12]: 311 

Physical space and cultural interaction

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The Jewish Cemetery in theMellah of Fez

Mellahs, walled on all four sides and typically gated, housed the Jewish population of Moroccan cities. As a result, these spaces fostered Jewish communal life through its physical structures. Mellahs were typically organized in neighborhoods and had synagogues, a Jewish cemetery, and kosher markets situated among other public areas. Even the synagogue itself facilitated a wide variety of Jewish communal needs including education, ritual baths, and spaces for children to play.[14]: 35–36 While at first these quarters offered considerable comfort to Jewish families, with spacious homes and protection due to proximity to the royal palace these luxuries soon came to a close.

"Yet over time, the quarters’ narrow streets became congested and overrun with people, and they became synonymous with ghettos. The Jews were confined to the inner walls of the rundownmellahs,and the areas became associated with cursed, “salted” land, much like the Jews were perceived among Moroccan society. "[24]

As Jews were key players in trade and commerce, mellahs were often situated on major waterways and were usually pretty close to each other to facilitate trade networks effectively.[26]Even more so, the mellah's market became a prominent space for not only the Jewish community, but non-Jewish peoples who would come to shop on market days. Because Jews commonly held merchant and artisan positions, the mellah was an attractive trade post for the entire city, not just the Jewish quarter.[14]: 73 Separation certainly stifled cultural interaction to some degree, but Muslims were allowed to enter the mellah and did so if they needed goods and services that fell within the Jewish niche.[12]: 323 

See also

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References

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  1. ^abcdefghijklmnZafrani, H. "Mallāḥ". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.Brill.
  2. ^Colin, Georges S. “Mellāḥ.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, First Edition (1913-1936)], April 24, 2012.
  3. ^Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1,p. 306,refers to Bernard Lewis 1987.
  4. ^abcdefghijklRguig, Hicham (2014). "Quand Fès inventait le Mellah". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.).Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne.Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 452–454.ISBN9782350314907.
  5. ^abcdefghiLe Tourneau, Roger (1949).Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman.Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.
  6. ^abcdefghTouri, Abdelaziz; Benaboud, Mhammad; Boujibar El-Khatib, Naïma; Lakhdar, Kamal; Mezzine, Mohamed (2010).Le Maroc andalou: à la découverte d'un art de vivre(2 ed.). Ministère des Affaires Culturelles du Royaume du Maroc & Museum With No Frontiers.ISBN978-3902782311.
  7. ^Terrasse, Henri (1968).La Mosquée al-Qaraouiyin à Fès; avec une étude de Gaston Deverdun sur les inscriptions historiques de la mosquée.Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.
  8. ^abcdBressolette, Henri; Delaroziere, Jean (1983). "Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle".Hespéris-Tamuda:245–318.
  9. ^Métalsi, Mohamed (2003).Fès: La ville essentielle.Paris: ACR Édition Internationale.ISBN978-2867701528.
  10. ^abcdefgDeverdun, Gaston (1959).Marrakech: Des origines à 1912.Rabat: Éditions Techniques Nord-Africaines.
  11. ^Parker, Richard (1981).A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco.Charlottesville, VA: The Baraka Press.
  12. ^abcdefghijkGilson Miller, Susan; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). "Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)".Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians.60(3): 310–327.doi:10.2307/991758.JSTOR991758.
  13. ^abcdefChetrit, Joseph (2014). "Juifs du Maroc et Juifs d'Espagne: deux destins imbriqués". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.).Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne.Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 309–311.ISBN9782350314907.
  14. ^abcdeGottreich, Emily (2006).Mellah of Marrakesh: Jewish and Muslim Space in Morocco's Red City.Indiana University Press.
  15. ^abcWilbaux, Quentin (2001).La médina de Marrakech: Formation des espaces urbains d'une ancienne capitale du Maroc.Paris: L'Harmattan.ISBN2747523888.
  16. ^Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987).A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0521337674.
  17. ^Houtsma, M. Th. E.J. Brill’s First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. Vol. 5. BRILL, 1993.
  18. ^"The Jewish Community of Fez, Morocco".The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived fromthe originalon 2018-06-12.Retrieved2018-06-12.
  19. ^Gottreich, Emily Benichou (2020-02-20).Jewish Morocco: A History from Pre-Islamic to Postcolonial Times.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN978-1-83860-361-8.
  20. ^"Fez, Morocco Jewish History Tour".www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.Retrieved2020-04-08.
  21. ^ab"Moroccoʹs Jewish legacy: The Rabbi of Essaouira - Qantara.de".Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World.Retrieved2023-05-23.
  22. ^abFrank, Michael (May 30, 2015). "In Morocco, Exploring Remnants of Jewish History".The New York Times.Retrieved 2018-11-29.
  23. ^Hollowell, Thomas (2014-10-14). "The Jewish Quarters (Mellahs) of Morocco's Medinas".Journey Beyond Travel.Retrieved 2018-11-29.
  24. ^abcShmulovich, Michal (March 9, 2014). "Glimpsing Jewish memories amid the mellahs of Morocco".The Times of Israel.Retrieved 2018-11-29.
  25. ^A.I.U., Maroc II.B.9– 13, 10 March 1929, Goldenberg.
  26. ^Goldberg, Harvey. “The Mellahs of Southern Morocco: Report of a Survey.”The Maghreb Review,vol. 8, no. 3, ser. 4, 1983, pp. 61–69.
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