Wikipedia

Melungeon

Melungeon(/məˈlʌndʒən/mə-LUN-jən) (sometimes also spelledMalungean, Melangean, Melungean, Melungin[3]) was aslur[4]historically applied to individuals and families ofmixed-raceancestry with roots incolonial Virginia,Tennessee,andNorth Carolinaprimarily descended fromfree people of colorandwhite settlers.[5][6][7][8]In modern times, the term has beenreclaimedby descendants of these families, especially insouthern Appalachia.[9][10][11]Despite this mixed heritage, many modern MelungeonspassasWhite,as did many of their ancestors.[12][13][14][15][16]

Melungeon
Melungeon schoolgirls fromHancock County, Tennesseein front of the Melungeon boarding school inAsheville, North Carolina,c. 1916
Regions with significant populations
United States(East Tennessee,Southwest Virginia,[1][2]North Carolina,andKentucky[2])
Languages
Southern American English
Religion
PredominatelyProtestant Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Lumbee,Atlantic Creole,Turks of South Carolina,Chestnut Ridge people,White Southerners,Black Southerners,Native Americans,Dominickers,Redbone (ethnicity),Mulatto,Coloureds,Griqua people,Basters,Métis,Black Indians in the United States,Garifuna
The Weaver family are one of the many Melungeon families descended fromSouth Asianindentured servants on Virginia plantations. Their paternal ancestors fled and settled in free mixed-race communities inNorth Carolina.[17]

Most of the modern population have an estimated 1-2% non-European DNA, though jumping up to 20% or more in some groups, such as the Lumbee.[18][19][20]Despite non-European DNA being in the minority for these groups, the impact of theone-drop ruleeither did, or had the potential to, label them asnon-white.This redesignation resulted in some individuals being sterilized bystate governments,most notably inVirginia.[21][22][23]

Many groups have historically been referred to as Melungeon, including the Melungeons ofNewman's Ridge,[24]theLumbee Tribe of North Carolina,[25][26]theChestnut Ridge people,[27]and theCarmel Indians.[28]

Free people of color in colonial Virginia were predominately ofAfricanandEuropeandescent; however, many families also had varying amounts ofNative AmericanandEast Indianancestry.[29][30][31][32][33][34]

Some modern researchers believe that earlyAtlantic Creoleslaves, descended from or acculturated by Iberianlançados[35]andSephardi Jewsfleeing theInquisition,[36][37][38][39][40]were one of the pre-cursor populations to these groups.[41][42][43]Many creoles, once inBritish America,were able to obtain their freedom and manymarried into local white families.[44][45][46][47][48]

In the generalUS census,Melungeon people were enumerated as of the races to which they most resembled.[49]

Etymology

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The termMelungeonlikely comes from the French wordmélangeultimately derived from the Latin verbmiscēre( "to mix, mingle, intermingle" ).[50][49][51]It was once a derogatory term, but is used by the Melungeon people today as a primary identifier. The Tennessee Encyclopedia states that in the 19th century, "the word 'Melungeon' appears to have been used as an offensive term for nonwhite and/or low socioeconomic class persons by outsiders."[51]

The termMelungeonwas historically considered an insult, a label applied to Appalachians who were by appearance or reputation ofmixed-raceancestry. Although initially pejorative in character,[52]this word has been reclaimed by members of the community.[53]The spelling of the term varied widely, as was common for words and names at the time.

According to the 1894Department of InteriorReport of Indians Taxed and not Taxed within the "Tennessee" report, "The civilized (self-supporting) Indians of Tennessee, counted in the general census numbered 146 (71 males and 75 females) and are distributed as follows:Hawkins county,31;Monroe county,12;Polk county,10; other counties (8 or less in each), 93. Quoting from the report:

The Melungeans or Malungeans, in Hawkins county, claim to be Cherokees of mixed blood (white, Indian, and negro), their white blood being derived, as they assert, from English and Portuguese stock. They trace their descent primarily to 2 Indians (Cherokees) known, one of them as Collins, the other as Gibson, who settled in the mountains of Tennessee, where their descendants are now to be found, about the time of the admission of that state into the Union (1796).

Early uses

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"A Typical Malungeon" (1890) byWill Allen Dromgoole

The earliest historical record of the termMelungeondates to 1813. In the minutes of the Stoney Creek Baptist Church inScott County, Virginia,a woman stated another parishioner made the accusation that "she harbored them Melungins."[51]The second oldest written use of the term was in 1840, when a Tennessee politician described "an impudent Melungeon" from what became Washington, D.C., as being "a scoundrel who is half Negro and half Indian."[51]In the 1890s, during the age ofyellow journalism,the term "Melungeon" started to circulate and be reproduced in U.S. newspapers, when the journalistWill Allen Dromgoolewrote several articles on the Melungeons.[54]

In 1894, theUS Department of the Interior,in its "Report of Indians Taxed and Not Taxed," under the section "Tennessee" noted:

In a number of states small groups of people, preferring the freedom of the woods or the seashore to the confinement of regular labor in civilization, have become in some degree distinct from their neighbors, perpetuating their qualities and absorbing into their number those of like disposition, without preserving very clear racial lines. Such are the remnants called Indians in some states where a pure-blooded Indian can hardly longer be found. In Tennessee is such a group, popularly known as Melungeans, in addition to those still known as Cherokees. The name seems to have been given them by early French settlers, who recognized their mixed origin and applied to them the name Melangeans or Melungeans, a corruption of the French word "melange" which means mixed. (See letter of Hamilton McMillan, under North Carolina.)[50][49]

History

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Unofficial Melungeon flag designed by a Melungeon descendant

In December 1943,Walter Ashby Pleckerof Virginia sent county officials a letter warning against "colored" families trying to pass as "white" or "Indian" in violation of the Racial Integrity Act of 1924. He identified these as being "chiefly Tennessee Melungeons".[55]He directed the offices to reclassify members of certain families as black, causing the loss for numerous families of documentation in records that showed their continued self-identification as being of Native American descent on official forms.[55][56][57]

In the 20th century, during theJim Crowera, some Melungeons attended boarding schools inAsheville, North Carolina,Warren Wilson College,andDorland Institutionwhich integrated earlier than other schools in the southern United States.[2]

"King of the Melungeons"

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During theAmerican Revolution,there was purportedly a Melungeon "king" or "chief" named Micajah Bunch (1723–1804). Local folklore claims he intermarried with theCherokee,making the Melungeons a branch of the tribe, though no documentation of this event exists.

The last male in Micajah's bloodline, Michael Joseph Bullard, died in a swimming accident at the age of 15 in 1991.[58]

Civil War

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Angus Chavis was aLumbeewho joined theConfederate Armyas adrummerat the age of 15.[59]

Manyfree people of color,white-passing or otherwise, served in theAmerican Civil Waron both sides of the conflict. Some served in theConfederate military,[60][61]though others resisted the Confederate government, such asHenry Berry Lowry.[62]

Culture

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There is no uniquely Melungeon culture, though specific groups have formed into their owntribal entitieson the basis of ancestral connections to historicalNative Americancommunities.[63][64]

Due to the lasting impact ofcolonialism,thedecimationof initial contacttribes,and the legacy ofAmerican chattel slavery,culturally these mixed-race groups resemble theirwhite settlerneighbors in culture, with few exceptions.[65]

Melungeon families

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HistorianHenry Louis Gates Jr.is descended from theChestnut Ridgecommunity of Melungeons.[66]

Definitions of who is Melungeon differ. Historians and genealogists have tried to identify surnames of different Melungeon families.[55][67]In 1943, Virginia State Registrar of Vital Statistics, Walter Ashby Plecker, identified surnames by county: "Lee, Smyth and Wise: Collins, Gibson, (Gipson), Moore, Goins, Ramsey, Delph, Bunch, Freeman, Mise, Barlow, Bolden (Bolin), Mullins, Hawkins (chiefly Tennessee Melungeons)".[55]

In 1992,Virginia DeMarceexplored and reported theGoinsgenealogy as a Melungeon surname.[68]Beginning in the early 19th century, or possibly before, the term Melungeon was applied as a slur to a group of about 40 families along the Tennessee-Virginia border, but it has since become a catch-all phrase for a number of groups of mysterious mixed-race ancestry.[1]Through time the term has changed meanings but often referred to any mixed-race person and, at different times, has referred to 200 different communities across the Eastern United States.[1]These have included Van Guilders and Clappers of New York andLumbeesin North Carolina toCreolesin Louisiana.[1]

Paul Heinegg's research

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Award-winning genealogist and engineer[69]Paul Heinegg created awebsitelisting some 1,000 family histories of free people of color, categorized bysurnameandcounty.Many families regularly denoted as Melungeon are listed throughout his research, as well as other families listed as being Native American, mulatto, and East Indian. Data is drawn from colonial tax lists and local court from acrossVirginia,Maryland,North Carolina,Delaware,andSouth Carolina.[70]

Claims

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Anthropologist E. Raymond Evans wrote in 1979 regarding Melungeons: "In Graysville, the Melungeons strongly deny their Black heritage and explain their genetic differences by claiming to have had Cherokee grandmothers. Many of the local whites also claim Cherokee ancestry and appear to accept the Melungeon claim...."[71]

In 1999, historian C. S. Everett hypothesized that John Collins (recorded as aSaponyIndian who was expelled fromOrange County, Virginiaabout January 1743), might be the same man as the Melungeon ancestor John Collins, who was classified as a "mulatto" in 1755 North Carolina records.[72]However, Everett revised that theory after he discovered evidence that these were two different men named John Collins. Only descendants of the latter man, who was identified as mulatto in the 1755 record in North Carolina, have any proven connection to the Melungeon families of eastern Tennessee.[73][promotional source?]

Jack D. Forbesspeculated that the Melungeons may have beenSaponi/Powhatandescendants, although he acknowledges an account from circa 1890 described them as being "free colored" and mulatto people.[74]

Myths

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Dispute regarding the origin of Melungeons families has led to a large number of ahistorical and dubious myths regarding their origins. Some myths involve physical characteristics and genetic diseases that are claimed to indicate Melungeon descent, such asshovel-shaped incisors,anAnatolian bump,Familial Mediterranean fever,polydactyly,dark skinwithbright colored eyes,andhigh cheekbones.[75][76][6]

Other myths claim that the Melungeons are descendants of lostSpanishcolonists, maroonedPortuguesesailors,[77]descendants of theancient IsraelitesorPhoenicians,[78]Romanislaves, orTurkishsettlers.[79]

Genetic testing

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The outlawSam Basswas part of the Bass family of the mixed-raceLost Creeksettlement.[80]

From 2005 to 2011, researchers Roberta J. Estes, Jack H. Goins, Penny Ferguson, and Janet Lewis Crain began the Melungeon Core Y-DNA Group online. They interpreted these results in their (2011) paper titled "Melungeons, A Multi-Ethnic Population",[67]which shows that ancestry of the sample is primarily European and African, with one person having a Native American paternalhaplotype.

Estes, Goins, Ferguson, and Crain wrote in their 2011 summary "Melungeons, A Multi-Ethnic Population" that the Riddle family is the only Melungeon participant with historical records identifying them as havingNative Americanorigins, but their DNA is European. Among the participants, only the Sizemore family is documented as having Native American DNA.[67]"Estes and her fellow researchers" theorize that the various Melungeon lines may have sprung from the unions of black and whiteindentured servantsliving in Virginia in the mid-1600s, before slavery. They conclude that as laws were put in place to penalize the mixing of races, the various family groups could only intermarry with each other, even migrating together fromVirginiathrough theCarolinasbefore settling primarily in the mountains ofEast Tennessee."[1][67]

Racial laws and court cases

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Melungeon ancestors were considered by appearance to be mixed race. During the 18th and the early 19th centuries,census enumeratorsclassified them as "mulatto," "other free," or as "free persons of color." Sometimes they were listed as "white" or sometimes as "black" or "negro," or even "Indian."[citation needed]One family described as "Indian" was the Ridley (Riddle) family, as was noted on a 1767Pittsylvania County, Virginia,tax list.[citation needed]Another tri-racial family described as “Indian” was the Butler family, as was noted in the 1860 census forWhitley County, Kentucky,with the family patriarch (named Simon Butler), being born in Tennessee around 1776.[citation needed]

Ariela Grossreferenced the 1846State v. Solomon, Ezekial, Levi, Andrew, Wiatt, Vardy Collins, Zachariah, Lewis Minor,Hawkins County Circuit Court Minute Book, 1842–1848, Hawkins County Circuit Court, Hawkins County Courthouse box 31, 32 and the Jacob F. Perkins vs. John R. White, Carter County, July 1855 Abstract of depositions to support her conclusions made about identity and citizenship in 19th-century United States.[81]

Confederate GeneralRandall L. Gibsonwas the great-grandson offree blackRevolutionary War veteran,Gideon Gibson Jr.[82]

In 1924, Virginia passed theRacial Integrity Actthat codifiedhypodescentor the "one-drop rule,suggesting that anyone with any trace of African ancestry was legally Black and would fall under Jim Crow laws designed to limit the freedoms and rights of Black people.[83]Anti-miscegenation laws in the United Stateswere not declared unconstitutional until the 1967Loving v. Virginiacase.[84]

Modern identity

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By the mid-to-late 19th century, the term Melungeon appeared to have been used most frequently to refer to the biracial families of Hancock County and neighboring areas.[citation needed]Several other uses of the term in the print media, from the mid-19th to the early 20th centuries, have been collected by the Melungeon Heritage Association.[2]

Since the mid-1990s, popular interest in the Melungeons has grown tremendously, although many descendants have left the region of historical concentration. The writerBill Brysondevoted the better part of a chapter to them in hisThe Lost Continent(1989). People are increasingly self-identifying as having Melungeon ancestry.[85][page needed][better source needed]Internet sites promote the anecdotal claim that Melungeons are more prone to certain diseases, such assarcoidosisorfamilial Mediterranean fever.Academic medical centers have noted that neither of those diseases is confined to a single population.[86]

Literature

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AuthorJesse Stuart's 1965 novelDaughter of the Legend,set in Tennessee, depicts a love story between a Melungeon girl and a timber cutter from Virginia, and explores socioeconomic and racial tensions among mountain-dwelling families.

A Melungeon character is the titular protagonist and narrator ofBarbara Kingsolver'sDemon Copperhead,which was a co-recipient of the 2023Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.The novel takes place primarily inLee County, Virginiaand environs.

See also

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References

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Further reading

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  • Ball, Bonnie (1992).The Melungeons: Notes on the Origin of a Race.Johnson City, Tennessee: Overmountain Press.
  • Berry, Brewton (1963).Almost White: A Study of Certain Racial Hybrids in the Eastern United States.New York: Macmillan Press.
  • Bible, Jean Patterson (1975).Melungeons Yesterday and Today.Signal Mountain, Tennessee: Mountain Press.
  • Brake, Katherine Vande.How They Shine: How They Shine: Melungeon Characters in Fiction of Appalachia.Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Brake, Katherine Vande.Through the Back Door: Melungeon Literacies and Twenty-First Century Technologies.Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Cavender, Anthony P. "The Melungeons of Upper East Tennessee: Persisting Social Identity,"Tennessee Anthropologist6 (1981): 27–36
  • Goins, Jack H. (2000).Melungeons: And Other Pioneer Families,Blountville, Tennessee: Continuity Press.
  • Dromgoole, William "Will" Allen (1891).The Malungeon Tree and Its Four Branches,Melungeon Heritage Association.
  • Hashaw, Tim.Children of Perdition: Melungeons and the Struggle of Mixed America.Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Heinegg, Paul (2005).FREE AFRICAN AMERICANS OF VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA, MARYLAND AND DELAWARE Including the family histories of more than 80% of those counted as "all other free persons" in the 1790 and 1800 census,Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing, 1999–2005. Available in its entirety online.
  • Hirschman, Elizabeth.Melungeons: The Last Lost Tribe in America.Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Johnson, Mattie Ruth (1997).My Melungeon Heritage: A Story of Life on Newman's Ridge.Johnson City, Tennessee: Overmountain Press.
  • Kennedy, N. Brent (1997)The Melungeons: the resurrection of a proud people.Mercer University Press.
  • Kessler, John S. and Donald Ball.North From the Mountains: A Folk History of the Carmel Melungeon Settlement, Highland County, Ohio. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Langdon, Barbara Tracy (1998).The Melungeons: An Annotated Bibliography: References in both Fiction and Nonfiction,Hemphill, Texas: Dogwood Press.
  • Lister, Richard (July 3, 2009)."Lost people of Appalachia".BBC News Online.
  • McGowan, Kathleen (2003). "Where do we really come from?",DISCOVER24 (5, May 2003)
  • Offutt, Chris.(1999) "Melungeons", inOut of the Woods,Simon & Schuster.
  • Overbay, DruAnna Williams.Windows on the Past: The Cultural Heritage of Vardy, Hancock County, Tennessee.Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Podber, Jacob.The Electronic Front Porch: An Oral History of the Arrival of Modern Media in Rural Appalachia and the Melungeon Community. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Price, Henry R. (1966). "Melungeons: The Vanishing Colony of Newman's Ridge." Conference paper.American Studies Association of Kentucky and Tennessee.March 25–26, 1966.
  • Reed, John Shelton (1997)."Mixing in the Mountains",Southern Cultures3 (Winter 1997): 25–36.(subscription required)
  • Scolnick, Joseph M Jr. and N. Brent Kennedy. (2004).From Anatolia to Appalachia: A Turkish American Dialogue.Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Vande Brake, Katherine (2001).How They Shine: Melungeon Characters in the Fiction of Appalachia,Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press.
  • Williamson, Joel (1980).New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States,New York: Free Press.
  • Winkler, Wayne. 2019.Beyond the sunset: The Melungeon drama, 1969-1976.Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
  • Winkler, Wayne (2004). "Walking Toward the Sunset: The Melungeons of Appalachia", Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press.
  • Winkler, Wayne and Estes, Roberta (7/11/2012). "For Some People of Appalachia complicated roots",Tell Me More.National Public Radio. npr.org accessed 12 June 2023
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