Themilkfish(Chanos chanos) is a widespread species ofray-finned fishfound throughout theIndo-Pacific.It is the sole livingspeciesin thefamilyChanidae,and the only living member of the genusChanos.[2][3][4] The repeating scientific name (tautonym) is from Greekkhanos(χάνος‘mouth’).[5][6]
| Milkfish Temporal range:Early Eocene–present
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| French Polynesia | |
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| Milkfish (locallybangús) in aPhilippinefish market | |
Scientific classification
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Order: | Gonorynchiformes |
| Family: | Chanidae |
| Subfamily: | Chaninae |
| Genus: | Chanos Lacépède,1803 |
| Species: | C. chanos
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| Binomial name | |
| Chanos chanos (Forsskål,1775)
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| Synonyms | |
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The species has many common names. TheHawaiianname for the fish isawa,and inTahitianit isava.It is calledbangús(Tagalog:[bɐˈŋus]) in thePhilippines,where it is popularly known as thenational fish,although theNational Commission for Culture and the Artshas stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.[7]In theNauruan language,it is referred to asibiya.Milkfish is also calledbandengorboluinIndonesia.[8]
Chanos chanosoccurs in theIndian Oceanand across thePacific Ocean,from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. A single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.[9]
Milkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.[8]
Taxonomy
editChanosis the only surviving genus of the ancient familyChanidae,which has existed since theEarly Cretaceous.The only surviving species is the widespreadC. chanos.Several fossil species ofChanosare known from thePaleogeneof theTethysandNorth Seas,dating as far back as the earliestEocene.[10]
The following fossil species ofChanosare known:[10]
- †C. brevis(Heckel,1854)- Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy
- †C. compressusStinton, 1977[otolith] - LateYpresianof theWittering Formation,England
- †C. forcipatusKner&Steindachner,1863- Late Ypresian ofMonte Bolca,Italy
- †C. torosusDaniltshenko, 1968- Earliest Ypresian of theDanata Formation,Turkmenistan
- †C. zignoiKner & Steindachner, 1863- Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy
The extinctCaeus leopoldifrom theEarly Cretaceous(Albian) of Italy is also sometimes placed inChanosasChanos leopoldi,which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back. However, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.[11]
Anatomy
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The milkfish can grow to 1.80 m (5 ft 11 in), but are most often no more than 1 m (39 in) in length. They can reach a weight of about 14 kg (31 lb). and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forkedcaudal fin.The head is small relative to the body. The mouth is small and toothless. The body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays. There are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see "Consumption" below).[8]
Biology
editThese fishes generally feed onalgaeand smallinvertebrates.They tend toschoolaroundcoastsandislandswithcoral reefs.The youngfrylive at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage tomangroveswamps,estuaries,and sometimeslakes,and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Females spawn at night up to 5 million eggs in saline shallow waters.[8]
Consumption
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The milkfish is an important seafood inSoutheast Asiaand some Pacific Islands. Because it is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called "bonelessbangús"in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets. Despite the notoriety however, many people in the Philippines continue to enjoy the fish cooked regularly or even raw usingkalamansijuice or vinegar to makekinilaw na bangus.[12]
Popular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia includebandeng duri lunak(soft-boned milkfish,ikan bandengis Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java orbandeng presto,which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, andbandeng asaporsmokedmilkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana nearSemarangin Central Java, andSidoarjonearSurabayain East Java.[citation needed]
Milkfish is the most popular fish inTaiwanese cuisine;it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. Popular presentations include as a topping forcongee,pan fried, braised, and as fish balls. There is a milkfish museum inAnping Districtand city ofKaohsiungholds an annual milkfish festival.[13]
Milkfish is anoily fish,and is rich inomega-3 fatty acids.
Aquaculture
editHistory
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Milkfishaquaculturefirst occurred around 1800 years ago in the Philippines and spread to Indonesia, Taiwan, and into the Pacific.[14]Traditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restockingpondsby collecting wild fry. This led to a wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions.[14]
In the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish. However, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability.[15]In 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages. These eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms.[16]
Farming methods
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Fry are raised in either sea cages, largesalineponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).[14]Milkfish reach sexual maturity at 1.5 kg (3.3 lb), which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach 6 kg (13 lb), (eight years), 3–4 millioneggsare produced each breeding cycle.[14]This is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.[17]Some still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.[14] Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example,rotifers,green algae,andbrine shrimp,as well as the target species.[14][18]They can either be intensive or semi-intensive.[14]Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $27.40 for intensive methods.[18]However, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.[18] Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.[14]Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.[14]The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.[14] The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture.
- Shallow ponds are found mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. These are shallow (30–40 centimetres (12–16 in)), brackish ponds with benthic algae, usually used as feed.[14]They are usually excavated fromnipaormangroveareas and produce about 800 kg/ha/yr. Deep ponds (2–3 m) have more stable environments and their use began in 1970. They so far have shown less susceptibility to disease than shallow ponds.[14]
- In 1979, pen culture was introduced inLaguna de Bay,which had high primary production.[14]This provided an excellent food source. Once this ran out, fertilizer was applied.[14]They are susceptible to disease.
- Cage culture occurs in coastal bays.[14]These consist of large cages suspended in open water. They rely largely on natural sources of food.[14]
Most food is natural (known aslab-lab) or a combination ofphytoplanktonandmacroalgae.[14][19]Traditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.[14] Harvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40 cm long (250–500 g in weight). Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals withseine netsorgill nets.Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed. Possible parasites includenematodes,copepods,protozoa,andhelminths.Many of these are treatable with chemicals andantibiotics.[14]
Processing and marketing
editTraditional post-harvest processing includesmoking,drying, and fermenting. Bottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin.[14] Demand has been steadily increasing since 1950.[14]In 2005, 595,000 tonnes were harvested worth US$616 million.[14]
A trend toward value-added products is occurring.[14]In recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait fortunalong-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries.[20]
Goldenbangus
editOn April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the PhilippineBureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources,which was later on called the "goldenbangus".[21]However, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level ofoxygenin the pond to which it was transferred.[22]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^Freyhof, J.; Sparks, J.S.; Kaymaram, F.; Feary, D.; Bishop, J.; Al-Husaini, M.; Almukhtar, M.; Hartmann, S.; Alam, S.; Al-Khalaf, K. (2019)."Chanos chanos".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2019:e.T60324A151598011.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60324A151598011.en.Retrieved19 November2021.
- ^Eschmeyer, W. N.; R. Fricke, eds. (4 January 2016)."Catalog of Fishes".California Academy of Sciences.Retrieved25 January2016.
- ^Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2015)."Chanidae"inFishBase.October 2015 version.
- ^Nelson, J. S.(2006).Fishes of the World(4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–136.ISBN978-0-471-25031-9.
- ^"Chanidae".Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.“from Greekchanosmouth”
- ^David Starr Jordan; et al. (1896).The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1.Government Printing Office. p. 414.OCLC1052833.
fromχάνος,the open mouth
- ^Pangilinan, Leon Jr. (3 October 2014)."In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols".National Commission for Culture and the Arts.Retrieved8 January2019.
- ^abcdFroese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2015)."Chanos chanos"inFishBase.October 2015 version.
- ^Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Chanos chanos). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Chanos_chanos.pdf
- ^abTaverne, Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis (2010),"The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes"(PDF),Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships,CRC Press,doi:10.1201/b10194-6/fossil-record-gonorynchiformes-emmanuel-fara-mireille-gayet-louis-taverne(inactive 2024-06-10),ISBN978-0-429-06156-1,retrieved2024-04-03
{{citation}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Taverne, Louis; Capasso, Luigi (2017)."Osteology and relationships of Caeus (" Chanos ") leopoldi ( Teleostei, Gonorynchiformes, Chanidae ) from the marine Albian ( Early Cretaceous ) of Pietraroja ( Campania, southern Italy )"(PDF).Bollettino del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona.41:03–20.
- ^Atbp (2017-01-20)."Kilawin na Bangus (Milkfish Ceviche)".ATBP.Retrieved2020-03-24.
- ^Hiufu Wong, Maggie (24 July 2015)."40 of the best Taiwanese foods and drinks".www.cnn.com.CNN.Retrieved29 September2020.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw"Chanos chanos(Forsskal, 1775) ".Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme.FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.
- ^"Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-12-13.Retrieved2010-09-12.
- ^Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology
- ^"Aquaculture".fishbase.mnhn.fr.
- ^abcLee, C.-S.; Leung, P.-S.; Su, M.-S. (1997). "Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (Chanos chanos) ".Aquaculture.155(1–4): 367–376.Bibcode:1997Aquac.155..367L.doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00104-X.
- ^Gapasin, R.S.J; Bombeo, R; Lavens, P; Sorgeloos, P; Nelis, H (1998). "Enrichment of live food with essential fatty acids and vitamin C: effects on milkfish (Chanos chanos) larval performance ".Aquaculture.162(3–4): 269–286.Bibcode:1998Aquac.162..269G.doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00205-1.
- ^FitzGerald, William J. (2004).Milkfish aquaculture in the Pacific: potential for the tuna longline fishery bait market(PDF).Noumea, New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community.
- ^"Fisheries bureau releases golden milkfish".SunStar.
- ^"Plan to breed 'golden' bangus dies with lone specimen".28 July 2012.
- Francisco José Poyato-Ariza,A revision of the ostariophysan fish family Chanidae, with special reference to the Mesozoic forms(Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996)
- Bagarinao, T., 1994. Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos. Environ. Biol. Fish. 39(1):23-41.
External links
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Media related toChanos chanosat Wikimedia Commons
Data related toChanos chanosat Wikispecies- Boneless Bangus
- FishBase entry for milkfish
- SEAFDEC milkfish hatchery info
- DA, Philippines, About Bangus
- Photos ofMilkfishon Sealife Collection
