Wikipedia

Millet

For other uses, seeMillet (disambiguation).

Millets(/ˈmɪlɪts/)[1]are a highly varied group of small-seededgrasses,widely grown around the world ascerealcrops or grains forfodderand human food. Most millets belong to the tribePaniceae.

Pearl millet

Millets are important crops in thesemiarid tropicsof Asia and Africa, especially inIndia,Mali,Nigeria,andNiger,with 97% of production indeveloping countries.[2]The crop is favoured for itsproductivityand short growing season under hot dry conditions. The millets are sometimes understood to include the widely cultivatedsorghum;apart from that,pearl milletis the most commonly cultivated of the millets.[3]Finger millet,proso millet,andfoxtail milletare other important crop species. Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies".[4]

Names and etymology

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Etymologically,milletis a term derived fromLatinmillium,the Latin name for these plants.

Inancient Egyptianmillet was calledbeshaorbeṭ-t,inCopticⲃϣⲧⲉ (bēshte).[5]

Description

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Millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other majorcereals.[6]

Phylogeny

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The millets are closely related tosorghumandmaizewithin thePACMAD cladeof grasses, and more distantly to thecerealsof theBOP cladesuch aswheatandbarley.[7]

(Part ofPoaceae)
BOP clade

Bambusoideae(bamboos)

Pooideae
other grasses

(fescue,ryegrass)

Triticeae

Hordeum(barley)

Triticum(wheat)

Secale(rye)

Oryza(rice)

PACMAD clade

Pennisetum(fountaingrasses,pearl millet)

Millets

Sorghum(sorghum)

Zea(maize)

Taxonomy

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The different species of millets are not all closely related. All are members of the familyPoaceae(the grasses), but they belong to differenttribesand subfamilies. Commonly cultivated millets are:[8]

Eragrostideaetribe in the subfamilyChloridoideae:

Paniceaetribe in the subfamilyPanicoideae:

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)
Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)

Andropogoneaetribe, also in the subfamilyPanicoideae:

Domestication and spread

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Specialized archaeologists calledpalaeoethnobotanists,relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence inprehistorythanrice,especially in northern China and Korea.[13]

The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought,[14]and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.[15]Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region ofEuropeby 5000 BCE.[15]

Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BCE, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from theLate Bronze AgeinMacedoniaand northern Greece.[16]Hesioddescribes that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer."[17][18]And millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BCE byTheophrastusin his "Enquiry into Plants".[19]

East Asia

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Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in theEarly Neolithicof China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found atCishan(north), where proso millet huskphytolithsand biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago instorage pitsalong with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.[14]Evidence atCishanfor foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago.[14]Noodles made from these two varieties of millet were found under a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles at theLajiaarchaeological site in north China; this is the oldest evidence of millet noodles in China.[20][21]

Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in theKorean Peninsuladating to the MiddleJeulmun pottery period(around 3500–2000 BCE).[22]Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of theMumun pottery period(about 1500–300 BCE) in Korea.[23]Millets and their wild ancestors, such asbarnyard grassandpanic grass,were also cultivated in Japan during theJōmon periodsometime after 4000 BCE.[24]

Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet toShennong,a legendary Emperor of China, andHou Ji,whose name means Lord Millet.[25]

Indian Subcontinent

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Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) is believed to have been domesticated around 5000 BCE in Indian subcontinent and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) around 3700 BCE, also in Indian subcontinent.[26][27]Various millets have been mentioned in some of theYajurvedatexts, identifyingfoxtail millet(priyaṅgu),Barnyard millet(aṇu) and blackfinger millet(śyāmāka), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BCE in India.[28]Upon request by theIndian Governmentin 2018, theFood and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations(FAO)declared 2023 as International Year of Millets.[29]

West Africa

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Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa fromPennisetum violaceum.[30]Early archaeological evidence in Africa includes finds atBirimiin northern Ghana (1740cal BC) andDhar TichittinMauritania(1936–1683 cal BC) and the lower Tilemsi valley inMali(2500 to 2000 cal BC).[30][31]Studies ofisozymessuggest domestication took place north east of theSenegal Riverin the far west of the Sahel and tentatively around 6000 BC.[30][31]Pearl millet had arrived in theIndian subcontinentby 2000 BC to 1700 BC.[31]

East Africa

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Finger milletis originally native to the highlands ofEast Africaand was domesticated before the third millennium BCE. Its cultivation had spread to South India by 1800 BCE.[32]

Research

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Research on millets is carried out by theInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics(ICRISAT)[33][34][35]andICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research[36]inTelangana,India, and by theUnited States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research ServiceatTifton, Georgia,United States.[37]

Cultivation

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A woman threshing pearl millet in Northern Ghana

Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia.[38]Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops. This has, in part, made millet production popular, particularly in countries surrounding theSaharain western Africa.[citation needed]

Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2 to 4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved breeds of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety inBurkina Faso,doubled yields. This breed was selected for trials inZimbabwe.From there it was taken toNamibia,where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-Saheliancountry where pearl millet—locally known asmahangu—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced toChad.The breed has significantly enhanced yields inMauritaniaandBenin.[39]

Production

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Top Millet producers
in 2022
Numbers in milliontonnes
1.India11.8(38.19%)
2.Niger3.7(11.97%)
3.China2.7(8.74%)
4.Nigeria1.9(6.15%)
5.Mali1.8(5.83%)
6.Sudan1.7(5.5%)
7.Ethiopia1.2(3.88%)
8.Senegal1.1(3.56%)
9.Burkina Faso0.9(2.91%)
10.Chad0.7(2.27%)
World total30.9
Source:FAOSTAT[40]
Production of millet (2008)

In 2022, global production of millet was 30.9 milliontonnes.Indiais the top millet producer worldwide, with 11.8 million tonnes grown annually – some 38% of the world total and nearly triple its nearest rival. Eight of the remaining nine nations in the top 10 producers are in Africa, ranging fromNiger(at 3.7 million tonnes) toChad(0.7 million tonnes); the sole exception isChina,number three in global production, at 2.7 million tonnes.

Uses

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As food

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Millets are major food sources in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and feature in the traditional cuisine of many others. In western India,sorghum(calledjowar,jola,dzonnalu,jwaarie,orjondhahlaainGujarati,Kannada,Telugu,HindiandMarathilanguages, respectively;mutthaari,kora,orpanjappulluinMalayalam;orcholaminTamil) has been commonly used with millet flour (calledjowariin western India) for hundreds of years to make the local staple, hand-rolled (that is, made without a rolling pin) flat bread (rotlain Gujarati,bhakriin Marathi, orrotiin other languages). Another cereal grain popularly used in rural areas and by poor people to consume as a staple in the form ofroti.Other millets such asragi(finger millet) inKarnataka,naachanieinMaharashtra,orkezhvaraguin Tamil, "ragulu" in Telugu, with the popularragi rottiandRagi muddeis a popular meal in Karnataka. Ragi, as it is popularly known, is dark in color like rye, but rougher in texture.

Milletporridgeis a traditional food inRussian,German,andChineseсuisines. In Russia, it is eaten sweet (with milk andsugaradded at the end of the cooking process) or savoury with meat or vegetable stews. In China, it is eaten without milk or sugar, frequently with beans,sweet potato,and/or various types ofsquash.In Germany, it is also eaten sweet, boiled in water withapplesadded during the boiling process andhoneyadded during the cooling process.

Millet is the main ingredient in bánh đa kê, a Vietnamese sweet snack. It contains a layer of smashed millet and mungbean topped with sliced driedcoconutmeat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake.[41]In parts of Africa it is mixed with milk and consumed asBrukina.

  • Awaokoshi,candied milletpuffs,are a specialty ofOsaka,Japan.
  • Bánh đa kê, a specialty sweet snack inHanoi,Vietnam
  • Tongba,a millet-based alcoholic brew fromNepalandSikkim

Alcoholic beverages

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In India, various alcoholic beverages are produced from millets.[42]Millet is also the base ingredient for the distilled liquorrakshi.[42]

As forage

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In addition to being used for seed, millet is also used as a grazing forage crop. Instead of letting the plant reach maturity, it can be grazed by stock and is commonly used forsheepand cattle.

Millet is aC4plant, which means that it has goodwater-use efficiencyand utilizes high temperature and is therefore a summer crop. A C4 plant uses a different enzyme inphotosynthesisfromC3plants, and this is why it improves water efficiency.

In southernAustraliamillet is used as a summer quality pasture, utilizing warm temperatures and summer storms. Millet is frost-sensitive and is sown after the frost period, once soil temperature has stabilised at 14 °C or higher. It is sown at a shallow depth.

Millet grows rapidly and can be grazed 5–7 weeks after sowing, when it is 20–30 cm high. The highest feed value is from the young green leaf and shoots. The plant can quickly come to head, so it must be managed accordingly because as the plant matures, the value and palatability of feed reduces.

The Japanese millets (Echinochloa esculenta) are considered the best for grazing and in particular Shirohie, a new variety of Japanese millet, is the best suited variety for grazing. This is due to a number of factors: it gives better regrowth and is later to mature compared to other Japanese millets; it is cheap – cost of seed is $2–$3 per kg; it is quick to establish, can be grazed early, and is suitable for both sheep and cattle.[citation needed]

Compared to forage sorghum, which is grown as an alternative grazing forage, animals gain weight faster on millet, and it has better hay or silage potential, although it produces less dry matter. Lambs do better on millet compared tosorghum.[43]Millet does not containprussic acid,which can be in sorghum. Prussic acid poisons animals by inhibiting oxygen utilisation by the cells and is transported in the blood around the body — ultimately the animal will die fromasphyxia.[44]There is no need for additional feed supplements such assulfuror salt blocks with millet.

The rapid growth of millet as a grazing crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation where livestock finishing is required.[43][44][45]

Human consumption

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Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa.[46]In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption inBurkina Faso,Chadand theGambia.InMaliandSenegal,millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while inNigerand aridNamibiait is over 65 percent (seemahangu). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source includeEthiopia,NigeriaandUganda.Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such asChina,India,BurmaandNorth Korea.[9]

People affected bygluten-related disorders,such ascoeliac disease,non-celiac gluten sensitivityandwheat allergysufferers,[47][48][49]who need agluten-free diet,can replacegluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet.[50]Nevertheless, while millet does not containgluten,its grains and flour may be contaminated withgluten-containing cereals.[51][52]

Nutrition

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Comparison with other staples

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The following table shows the nutrient content of millet compared to major staple foods in a raw form.[53]

Nutrient profile comparison of proso millet with other food staples[53]
Component
(per 100 g portion, raw grain)		 Cassava[a] Wheat[b] Rice[c] Maize[d] Sorghum[e] Proso
millet[f] 		Kodo
millet[42]
water (g) 60 13.1 12 76 9.2 8.7
energy (kJ) 667 1368 1527 360 1418 1582 1462
protein (g) 1.4 12.6 7 3 11.3 11 9.94
fat (g) 0.3 1.5 1 1 3.3 4.2 3.03
carbohydrates (g) 38 71.2 79 19 75 73 63.82
fiber (g) 1.8 12.2 1 3 6.3 8.5 8.2
sugars (g) 1.7 0.4 >0.1 3 1.9
iron (mg) 0.27 3.2 0.8 0.5 4.4 3 3.17
manganese (mg) 0.4 3.9 1.1 0.2 <0.1 1.6
calcium (mg) 16 29 28 2 28 8 32.33
magnesium (mg) 21 126 25 37 <120 114
phosphorus (mg) 27 288 115 89 287 285 300
potassium (mg) 271 363 115 270 350 195
zinc (mg) 0.3 2.6 1.1 0.5 <1 1.7 32.7
pantothenic acid (mg) 0.1 0.9 1.0 0.7 <0.9 0.8
vitB6 (mg) 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 <0.3 0.4
folate (μg) 27 38 8 42 <25 85
thiamin (mg) 0.1 0.38 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.15
riboflavin (mg) <0.1 0.1 >0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 2.0
niacin (mg) 0.9 5.5 1.6 1.8 2.9 0.09
Nutrient content of raw millets compared to other grains[54]
Crop / nutrient Protein (g) Fiber (g) Minerals (g) Iron (mg) Calcium (mg)
Sorghum 10 4 1.6 2.6 54
Pearl millet 10.6 1.3 2.3 16.9 38
Finger millet 7.3 3.6 2.7 3.9 344
Foxtail millet 12.3 8 3.3 2.8 31
Proso millet 12.5 2.2 1.9 0.8 14
Kodo millet 8.3 9 2.6 0.5 27
Little millet 7.7 7.6 1.5 9.3 17
Barnyard millet 11.2 10.1 4.4 15.2 11
Brown top millet 11.5 12.5 4.2 0.65 0.01
Quinoa 14.1 7 * 4.6 47
Teff 13 8 0.85 7.6 180
Fonio 11 11.3 5.31 84.8 18
Rice 6.8 0.2 0.6 0.7 10
Wheat 11.8 1.2 1.5 5.3 41

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Raw, uncooked
  2. ^Hard red winter.
  3. ^White, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched.
  4. ^Sweet, yellow, raw.
  5. ^Sorghum, edible portion white variety.
  6. ^Millet, proso variety, raw.

References

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Bibliography

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  • Crawford, Gary W. (1983).Paleoethnobotany of the Kameda Peninsula.Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan.ISBN978-0-932206-95-4.
  • Crawford, Gary W. (1992). "Prehistoric Plant Domestication in East Asia". In Cowan C.W.; Watson P.J (eds.).The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective.Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 117–132.ISBN978-0-87474-990-8.
  • Crawford, Gary W.; Lee, Gyoung-Ah (2003). "Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula".Antiquity.77(295): 87–95.doi:10.1017/s0003598x00061378.S2CID163060564.
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