This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(February 2021) |
Monarchismis the advocacy of the system ofmonarchyor monarchical rule.[1]Amonarchistis an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is aroyalist.Conversely, the opposition to monarchical rule is referred to asrepublicanism.[2][3][4]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/World_Monarchies.svg/400px-World_Monarchies.svg.png)
Depending on the country, a royalist may advocate for the rule of the person who sits on the throne, aregent,apretender,or someone who would otherwise occupy the throne but has been deposed.
History
editMonarchical rule is among the oldest political institutions.[5]The similar form of societal hierarchy known aschiefdomortribal kingshipis prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such asMesopotamia,Ancient Egyptand theIndus Valley civilization.[6]In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.[7]
Monarchs have generally ceded power in the modern era, having substantially diminished sinceWorld War IandWorld War II.This process can be traced back to the 18th century, whenVoltaireand others encouraged "enlightened absolutism",which was embraced by theHoly Roman Emperor Joseph IIand byCatherine II of Russia.[citation needed]
In the 17th and 18th centuries theEnlightenmentbegan.[8]This resulted in new anti-monarchist ideas[9]which resulted in several revolutions such as the 18th centuryAmerican Revolutionand theFrench Revolutionwhich were both additional steps in the weakening of power of European monarchies. Each in its different way exemplified the concept ofpopular sovereigntyupheld byJean-Jacques Rousseau.1848 ushered ina wave of revolutionsagainst the continental European monarchies.World War Iand its aftermath saw the end of three major European monarchies: the RussianRomanovdynasty, the GermanHohenzollerndynasty, including all other German monarchies, and the Austro-HungarianHabsburgdynasty.[citation needed]
With the arrival ofcommunisminEastern Europeby the end of 1947, the remaining Eastern European monarchies, namely theKingdom of Romania,theKingdom of Hungary,theKingdom of Albania,theKingdom of Bulgaria,and theKingdom of Yugoslavia,were allabolishedand replaced bysocialist republics.
Africa
editCentral Africa
editIn 1966, theCentral African Republicwas overthrown at the hands ofJean-Bédel Bokassaduring theSaint-Sylvestre coup d'état.He established theCentral African Empirein 1976 and ruled as Emperor Bokassa I until 1979, when he was subsequently deposed duringOperation Cabanand Central Africa returned to republican rule.[citation needed]
Ethiopia
editIn 1974, one of the world's oldest monarchies was abolished inEthiopiawith the fall of EmperorHaile Selassie.[citation needed]
Asia
editChina
editFor most of its history, China was organized into variousdynastic statesunder the rule ofhereditary monarchs.Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule byYu the Greatc. 2070 BC,and ending with theabdicationof theXuantong Emperorin AD 1912,Chinese historiographycame to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.[a][b]Besides those established by the dominantHanethnic group or its spiritualHuaxiapredecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[15]
India
editIn India, monarchies recorded history of thousands of years before the country was declared a republic in 1950. KingGeorge VIhad previously been the lastEmperor of Indiauntil August 1947, when theBritish Rajdissolved.Karan Singhserved as the last prince regent ofJammu and Kashmiruntil November 1952.[citation needed]
Japan
editThe emperor of Japan orTennō(Thiên hoàng,pronounced[tennoꜜː]),literally "ruler from heaven"or"heavenly sovereign",[16][c]is thehereditary monarchandhead of stateofJapan.TheImperial Household Lawgoverns the line ofimperial succession.The emperor is personallyimmunefrom prosecution[18]and is also recognized as the head of theShintoreligion, which holds the emperor to be the direct descendant of the sun goddessAmaterasu.According to tradition, the office of emperor was created in the 7th century BC, but modern scholars believe that the first emperors did not appear until the 5th or 6th centuriesAD.[19][20]During theKamakura periodfrom 1185 to 1333, theshōgunswere thede factorulers of Japan, with the emperor and the imperial court acting asfigureheads.[21]In 1867, shogunTokugawa Yoshinobustepped down,restoringEmperor Meijito power.[22]TheMeiji Constitutionwas adopted In 1889, after which the emperor became an active ruler with considerable political power that was shared with theImperial Diet.[23]AfterWorld War II,the1947 Constitution of Japanwas enacted, defining the emperor as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people.[24]The emperor has exercised a purely ceremonial role ever since.[25]
Europe
editAlbania
editThe last separate monarchy to take root in Europe,Albaniabegan its recognised modern existence as aprincipality(1914) and becamea kingdomafter arepublican interludein 1925–1928. Since 1945 the country has operated as an independent republic. TheAlbanian Democratic Monarchist Movement Party(founded in 2004) and theLegality Movement Party(founded in 1924) advocate restoration of theHouse of Zoguas monarchs—the concept has gained little electoral support.[citation needed]
Austria-Hungary
editFollowing the collapse of Austria-Hungary, theRepublic of German-Austriawas proclaimed. The Constitutional Assembly of German Austria passed theHabsburg Law,which permanently exiled the Habsburg family from Austria. Despite this, significant support for the Habsburg family persisted in Austria. Following theAnschlussof 1938, theNazigovernment suppressed monarchist activities. By the time Nazi rule ended in Austria, support for monarchism had largely evaporated.[26]
In Hungary, the rise of theHungarian Soviet Republicin 1919 provoked an increase in support for monarchism; however, efforts by Hungarian monarchists failed to bring back a royal head of state, and the monarchists settled for aregent,AdmiralMiklós Horthy,to represent the monarchy until the throne could be re-occupied. Horthy ruled as regent from 1920 to 1944. During his regency, attempts were made byKarl von Habsburg(r. 1916–1918) to return to the Hungarian throne, which ultimately failed. Following Karl's death in 1922, his claim to the Kingdom of Hungary was inherited byOtto von Habsburg(1912–2011), although no further attempts were made to take the Hungarian throne.[citation needed]
France
editFrancewas ruled bymonarchsfrom the establishment of theKingdom of West Franciain 843 until the end of theSecond French Empirein 1870, with several interruptions.
Classical Frenchhistoriographyusually regardsClovis I,king of the Franks(r. 507–511), as the first king of France. However, historians today consider that such a kingdom did not begin until the establishment ofWest Francia,during the dissolution of theCarolingian Empirein the 800s.[27][28]
Germany
editIn 1920s Germany, a number of monarchists gathered around theGerman National People's Party(founded in 1918), which demanded the return of theHohenzollernmonarchy and an end to theWeimar Republic;the party retained a large base of support until the rise ofNazismin the 1930s, asAdolf Hitlerstaunchly opposed monarchism.[29]
Italy
editThe aftermath ofWorld War IIsaw the return of monarchist/republican rivalry inItaly,where areferendumwas held on whether the state should remain a monarchy or become a republic. The republican side won the vote by a narrow margin, and the modern Republic of Italy was created.[30]
Liechtenstein
editThere have been 16 monarchs of thePrincipality of Liechtensteinsince 1608. The current Prince of Liechtenstein,Hans-Adam II,has reigned since 1989. In 2003, during areferendum,64.3% of the population voted to increase the power of the prince.[citation needed]
Norway
editThe position ofKing of Norwayhas existed continuously since theunification of Norwayin 872. Following the dissolution ofunion with Swedenand the abdication of KingOscar IIof Sweden as King of Norway, the1905 Norwegian monarchy referendumsaw 78.94% of Norway's voters approving the government's proposition to invite Prince Carl of Denmark to become their new king. Following the vote, the prince then accepted the offer, becoming KingHaakon VII.[citation needed]
In 2022, the Norwegian parliament held a vote on abolishing the monarchy and replacing it with a republic. The proposal failed, with a 134–35 result in favor of retaining the monarchy. The idea was highly controversial in Norway, as the vote was spearheaded by the sittingMinister of Culture and Equality,who had sworn an oath of loyalty to KingHarald V of Norwaythe previous year. Additionally, when polls were conducted, it was found that 84% of the Norwegian public supported the monarchy, with only 16% unsure or against the monarchy.[citation needed]
Russia
editMonarchy in theRussian Empirecollapsed in March 1917, following theabdicationof TsarNicholas II.Parts of theWhite movement,and in particularémigrésand theirSupreme Monarchical Council (founded in 1921 and now based in Canada) continued to advocate for monarchy as "the sole path to the rebirth of Russia". In the modern era, a minority of Russians, includingVladimir Zhirinovsky(1946–2022), have openly advocated for arestoration of the Russian monarchy.Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovnais widely considered the valid heir to the throne, in the event that a restoration occurs.Other pretendersand their supporters dispute her claim.
Spain
editIn 1868, QueenIsabella II of Spainwas deposed during theSpanish Glorious Revolution.TheDuke of Aosta,an Italian prince, was invited to rule and replace Isabella. He did so for a three-year period, reigning as Amadeo I before abdicating in 1873, resulting in the establishment of theFirst Spanish Republic.The republic lasted less than two years, and was overthrown during a coup by GeneralArsenio Martínez Campos.Campos restored theBourbon monarchyunder Isabella II's more popular son,Alfonso XII.
After the1931 Spanish local elections,KingAlfonso XIIIvoluntarily left Spain and republicans proclaimed aSecond Spanish Republic.[31] After theassassination of opposition leaderJosé Calvo Soteloin 1936, right-wing forces banded together to overthrow the Republic. During theSpanish Civil Warof 1936 to 1939, GeneralFrancisco Francoestablished the basis for theSpanish State(1939–1975). In 1938, the autocratic government of Franco claimed to have reconstituted the Spanish monarchyin absentia(and in this case ultimately yielded to a restoration, in the person of KingJuan Carlos).
In 1975,Juan Carlos Ibecame King of Spain and began theSpanish transition to democracy.He abdicated in 2014, and was succeeded by his sonFelipe VI.
United Kingdom
editIn England, royalty ceded power to other groups in a gradual process. In 1215, a group of nobles forcedKing Johnto signMagna Carta,which guaranteed the English barons certain liberties and established that the king's powers were not absolute. KingCharles Iwas executed in 1649, and theCommonwealth of Englandwas established as a republic. Highly unpopular, the republic was ended in 1660, and the monarchy was restored under KingCharles II.In 1687–88, theGlorious Revolutionand the overthrow of KingJames IIestablished the principles ofconstitutional monarchy,which would later be worked out byLockeand other thinkers. However,absolute monarchy,justified byHobbesinLeviathan(1651), remained a prominent principle elsewhere.
Following the Glorious Revolution,William IIIandMary IIwere established as constitutional monarchs, with less power than their predecessor James II. Since then, royal power has become more ceremonial, with powers such asrefusal to assentlast exercised in 1708 byQueen Anne.Once part of the United Kingdom (1801–1922), southern Ireland rejected monarchy and became theRepublic of Irelandin 1949. Support for a ceremonial monarchy remains high in Britain: QueenElizabeth II(r. 1952–2022), possessed wide support from the U.K.'s population.
Vatican City State
editThe Vatican City State is considered to be Europe's last absolute monarchy. The microstate is headed by thePope,who doubles as its monarch according to the Vatican constitution. The nation was formed underPope Pius XIin 1929, following the signing of theLateran Treaty.It was the successor state to thePapal States,which collapsed underPope Pius IXin 1870.Pope Francis(in office from 2013) serves as the nation's absolute monarch.
North America
editCanada
editCanada possesses one of the world's oldest continuous monarchies, having been established in the 16th century. QueenElizabeth IIhad served as its sovereign since her ascension to the throne in 1952 until her death in 2022. Her son, KingCharles III,now sits on the throne.
Costa Rica
editThe struggle between monarchists and republicans led to the Costa Rican civil war of 1823. Costa Rican monarchists includeJoaquín de Oreamunoy Muñoz de la Trinidad, José Santos Lombardo y Alvarado and José Rafael Gallegos Alvarado. Costa Rica stands out for being one of the few countries with foreign monarchism, that is, where the monarchists did not intend to establish an indigenous monarchy. Costa Rican monarchists were loyal to Emperor Agustín de Iturbide of theFirst Mexican Empire.
Honduras
editAfter the independence of thegeneral captaincy of Guatemalafrom theSpanish empire,she joined theFirst Mexican Empirefor a brief period, this unleashed the division of the Honduran elites. These were divided between the annexationists, made up mostly of illustrious Spanish-descendant families and members of the conservative party who supported the idea of being part of an empire, and the liberals who wanted Central America to be a separate nation under a republican system.
The greatest example of this separation was in the two most important cities of the province, on the one handComayagua,which firmly supported the legitimacy of Iturbide I as emperor and remained a pro-monarchist bastion in Honduras, and on the other handTegucigalpawho supported the idea of forming a federation of Central American states under a republican system.
Mexico
editAfter obtaining independence from Spain, theFirst Mexican Empirewas established under EmperorAgustín I.His reign lasted less than one year, and he was forcefully deposed. In 1864, theSecond Mexican Empirewas formed under EmperorMaximilian I.Maximilian's government enjoyed French aid, but opposition from America, and collapsed after three years. Much like Agustín I, Maximilian I was deposed and later executed by his republican enemies. Since 1867, Mexico has not possessed a monarchy.
Today, some Mexican monarchist organizations advocate forMaximilian von Götzen-IturbideorCarlos Felipe de Habsburgoto be instated as the Emperor of Mexico.
Nicaragua
editThemiskitoethnic group inhabits part of the Atlantic coast ofHondurasandNicaragua,by the beginning of the 17th century the said ethnic group was reorganized under a single chief known as Ta Uplika, for the reign of his grandson KingOldman Ithis group had a very close relationship With the English, they managed to turn the Mosquitia coast into an English protectorate that would decline in the 19th century until it completely disappeared in 1894 with the abdication ofRobert II.[32]
Currently, the Miskitos who are shot between the two countries have denounced the neglect of their communities and abuses committed by the authorities. As a result of this, inNicaraguaseveral Miskito people began a movement of separatism from present-day Nicaragua and a re-institution of the monarchy.
United States
editEnglish settlers first established the colony ofJamestownin 1607, taking its name after KingJames VI and I.For 169 years, theThirteen Colonieswere ruled by the authority of the British crown. The Thirteen American Colonies possessed a total of 10 monarchs, ending withGeorge III.During theAmerican Revolutionary War,the colonies declared independence from Britain in 1776. Despite erroneous popular belief, the Revolutionary war was in fact fought over independence, not anti-monarchism as is commonly believed. In fact, many American colonists who fought in the war against George III were monarchists themselves, who opposed George, but desired to possess a different king. Additionally, the American colonists received the financial support ofLouis XVIandCharles III of Spainduring the war.
After the U.S. declared its independence, the form of government by which it would operate still remained unsettled. At least two of America'sFounding Fathers,Alexander HamiltonandNathaniel Gorham,believed that America should be an independent monarchy. Various proposals to create an American monarchy were considered, including thePrussian schemewhich would have madePrince Henry of Prussiaking of the United States. Hamilton proposed that the leader of America should be an elected monarch, while Gorham pushed for a hereditary monarchy.[33][34]U.S. military officerLewis Nicolaalso desired for America to be a monarchy, suggestingGeorge Washingtonaccept the crown of America, which he declined. All attempts ultimately failed, and America was founded a Republic.
During theAmerican Civil War,a return to monarchy was considered as a way to solve the crisis, though it never came to fruition. Since then, the idea has possessed low support, but has been advocated by some public figures such asRalph Adams Cram,Solange Hertz,Leland B. Yeager,Michael Auslin,Charles A. Coulombe,andCurtis Yarvin.
South America
editBrazil
editFrom gaining its independence in 1822 until 1889,Brazilwas governed as a constitutional monarchy with a branch of thePortuguese Royal Familyserving as monarchs. Prior to this period, Brazil had been a royal colony which had also served briefly as the seat of government for thePortuguese Empirefollowing the occupation of that country by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1808. The history of the Empire of Brazil was marked by brief periods of political instability, several wars that Brazil won, and a marked increase in immigration which saw the arrival of both Jews and Protestants who were attracted by Brazil's reputation for religious tolerance. The final decades of the Empire under the reign ofPedro IIsaw a remarkable period of relative peace both at home and internationally, coupled with dramatic economic expansion, the extension of basic civil rights to most people and the gradual restriction ofslavery,culminating in its final abolition in 1888. It is also remembered for its thriving culture and arts. However, Pedro II had little interest in preserving the monarchy and passively accepted its overthrow by a military coup d'état in 1889 resulting in the establishment of a dictatorship known as theFirst Brazilian Republic.[35]
Current monarchies
editThe majority of current monarchies areconstitutional monarchies.In a constitutional monarchy the power of the monarch is restricted by either a written or unwritten constitution, this should not be confused with aceremonial monarchy,in which the monarch holds only symbolic power and plays very little to no part in government or politics. In some constitutional monarchies the monarch does play a more active role in political affairs than in others. InThailand,for instance, KingBhumibol Adulyadej,who reigned from 1946 to 2016, played a critical role in the nation's political agenda and in various military coups. Similarly, inMorocco,KingMohammed VIwields significant, but not absolute power.
Liechtensteinis a democraticprincipalitywhose citizens have voluntarily given more power to their monarch in recent years.
There remain a handful of countries in which the monarchy is anabsolute monarchy.The majority of these countries are oil-producingArabIslamic monarchieslikeSaudi Arabia,Bahrain,Qatar,Oman,and theUnited Arab Emirates.Other strong monarchies includeBruneiandEswatini.
Political philosophy
editAbsolute monarchy stands as an opposition toanarchismand, additionally since theAge of Enlightenment;liberalism,capitalism,communismandsocialism.
Otto von Habsburgadvocated a form of constitutional monarchy based on the primacy of the supreme judicial function, withhereditary succession,mediationby atribunalis warranted if suitability is problematic.[36][37]
Non-partisanship
editBritish political scientistVernon Bogdanorjustifies monarchy on the grounds that it provides for a nonpartisanhead of state,separate from thehead of government,and thus ensures that the highest representative of the country, at home and internationally, does not represent a particularpolitical party,but all people.[38]Bogdanor also notes that monarchies can play a helpful unifying role in amultinational state,noting that "In Belgium, it is sometimes said that the king is the only Belgian, everyone else being eitherFlemingorWalloon"and that theBritish sovereigncan belong to all of the United Kingdom'sconstituent countries(England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland), without belonging to any particular one of them.[38]
Private interest
editThomas Hobbeswrote that the private interest of the monarchy is the same with the public. The riches, power, and humour of a monarch arise only from the riches, strength, and reputation of his subjects. An electedHead of Stateis incentivised to increase his own wealth for leaving office after a few years whereas a monarch has no reason to corrupt because he would be cheating himself.[d]
Wise counsel
editThomas Hobbeswrote that a monarch can receive wise counsel with secrecy while an assembly cannot. Advisors to the assembly tend to be well-versed more in the acquisition of their own wealth than of knowledge; are likely to give their advices in long discourses which often excite men into action but do not govern them in it, moved by the flame of passion instead of enlightenment. Their multitude is a weakness.[e]
Long termism
editThomas Hobbeswrote that the resolutions of a monarch are subject to no inconsistency save for human nature; in assemblies, inconsistencies arise from the number. For in an assembly, as little as the absence of a few or the diligent appearance of a few of the contrary opinion, "undoes today all that was done yesterday".[f]
Civil war reduction
editThomas Hobbeswrote that a monarch cannot disagree with himself, out of envy or interest, but an assembly may and to such a height that may produce a civil war.[g]
Liberty
editTheInternational Monarchist League,founded in 1943, has always sought to promote monarchy on the grounds that it strengthens popular liberty, both in a democracy and in a dictatorship, because by definition the monarch is not beholden to politicians.
British-Americanlibertarianwriter Matthew Feeney argues that European constitutional monarchies "have managed for the most part to avoid extreme politics" —specifically fascism, communism, and military dictatorship— "in part because monarchies provide a check on the wills of populist politicians" by representing entrenched customs and traditions.[39]Feeny notes that
European monarchies—such as the Danish, Belgian, Swedish, Dutch, Norwegian, and British—have ruled over countries that are among the most stable, prosperous, and free in the world.[39]
Socialist writerGeorge Orwellargued a similar point, that constitutional monarchy is effective at preventing the development offascism.
"The function of the King in promoting stability and acting as a sort of keystone in a non-democratic society is, of course, obvious. But he also has, or can have, the function of acting as an escape-valve for dangerous emotions. A French journalist said to me once that the monarchy was one of the things that have saved Britain from Fascism...It is at any rate possible that while this division of function exists a Hitler or a Stalin cannot come to power. On the whole the European countries which have most successfully avoided Fascism have been constitutional monarchies... I have often advocated that a Labour government, i.e. one that meant business, would abolish titles while retaining the Royal Family.’[40]
Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihntook a different approach, arguing that liberty and equality are contradictions. As such, he argued that attempts to establish greater social equality through theabolishment of monarchy,ultimately results in a greater loss of liberty for citizens. He believed that equality can only be accomplished through the suppression of liberty, as humans are naturally unequal and hierarchical. Kuehnelt-Leddihn also believed that people are on average freer under monarchies than they are under democratic republics, as the latter tends to more easily become tyrannical throughochlocracy.InLiberty or Equality,he writes:
There is little doubt that the American Congress or the French Chambers have a power over their nations which would rouse the envy of aLouis XIVor aGeorge III,were they alive today. Not onlyprohibition,but also the income tax declaration,selective service,obligatory schooling, the fingerprinting of blameless citizens, premarital blood tests—none of these totalitarian measures would even the royal absolutism of the seventeenth century have dared to introduce.[41]
Hans-Hermann Hoppealso argues that monarchy helps to preserve individual liberty more effectively than democracy.[42]
Natural desire for hierarchy
editIn a 1943 essay inThe Spectator,"Equality", British authorC.S. Lewiscriticized egalitarianism, and its corresponding call for the abolition of monarchy, as contrary to human nature, writing,
A man's reaction to Monarchy is a kind of test. Monarchy can easily be 'debunked'; but watch the faces, mark well the accents, of the debunkers. These are the men whose tap-root in Eden has been cut: whom no rumour of the polyphony, the dance, can reach—men to whom pebbles laid in a row are more beautiful than an arch...Where men are forbidden to honour a king they honour millionaires, athletes, or film-stars instead: even famous prostitutes or gangsters. For spiritual nature, like bodily nature, will be served; deny it food and it will gobble poison.[43]
Political accountability
editOxford political scientists Petra Schleiter and Edward Morgan-Jones wrote that in monarchies, it is more common to hold elections than non-electoral replacements.[44]
Notable works
editNotable works arguing in favor of monarchy include
|
|
Support for monarchy
editCurrent monarchies
editCountry | Polling firm/source | Sample size | Percentage of supporters | Date conducted | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antigua and Barbuda | Lord Ashcroft Polls | 510 | 45% | February and March 2023 | [45] |
Australia | Essential | 1,125 | 46% | April 2023 | [46] |
Belgium | IVOX | 1,000 | 58% | September 2017 | [47] |
Canada | Nanos Research | 1,001 | 48% | June 2022 | [48] |
Denmark | Gallup | 82% | 2014 | [49] | |
Jamaica | Lord Ashcroft Polls | 510 | 40% | February and March 2023 | [45] |
Japan | Mainichi Shimbun | 74% | April 2019 | [50] | |
Lesotho | Afrobarometer | 75% | June 2018 | [51] | |
Morocco | Le Monde | 1,108 | 91% | March 2009 | [52] |
Netherlands | EenVandaag | 52% | April 2024 | [53] | |
New Zealand | Lord Ashcroft Polls | 2,012 | 44% | February and March 2023 | [54] |
Norway | Nettavisen | 20,000 | 84% | 2022 | |
Saint Vincent | Government constitutional referendum | 52,262 | 56.3% | November 2009 | |
Spain | Spain | 58.6% | January 2024 | [55] | |
Sweden | Novus | 71% | January 2023 | [56] | |
Thailand | Suan Dusit Rajabhat University | 5,700 | 60% | October 2020 | [57] |
Tuvalu | Government constitutional referendum | 1,939 | 64.9% | April 2008 | [58] |
United Kingdom | Ipsos | 2,166 | 60% | May 2024 |
Former monarchies
editThis section'sfactual accuracymay be compromised due to out-of-date information.The reason given is: Some information in this section is more than 10 years old.(November 2022) |
The following is a list of former monarchies and their percentage of public support for monarchism.
Country | Polling firm/source | Sample size | Percentage of supporters | Date conducted | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Austria | [note 2] | [note 2] | 20%[note 2] | [note 2] | [59] |
Barbados | University of the West Indies | 500 | 12% | November 2021 | [60] |
Brazil | Círculo Monárquico Brasileiro | 188 | 32% | September 2019 | [61] |
Croatia | Consilium Regium Croaticum | 1,759 | 41% | 2019 | [62] |
Czech Republic | SC&C Market Research | 13% | 2018 | [63] | |
France | BVA Group | 953 | 17% | March 2007 | [64] |
Georgia | Doctrina | 560 | 78.9% | July 2015 | [65] |
Germany | YouGov | 1,041 | 16% | April 2016 | [66] |
Greece | Kappa Research | 2,040 | 11.6% | April 2007 | [67] |
Hungary | Azonnali | 3,541 | 46% | May 2021 | [68] |
Italy | Piepoli institute | 15% | 2018 | [69] | |
Mexico | Parametría | 7.6% | July 2014 | [70] | |
Nepal | Interdisciplinary Analysts | 3,000 | 49% | January 2008 | [71] |
Portugal | Catholic University of Portugal/Diário de Notícias | 1,148 | 11% | March 2010 | [72] |
Romania | Institutul Român pentru Evaluare și Strategie | 1,073 | 21% | March 2016 | [73] |
Russia | Russian Public Opinion Research Center | ~1,800 | 28%[note 3] | March 2017 | [74] |
Serbia | SAS Intelligence | 1,615 | 39.7% | April 2013 | [75] |
Turkey | MetroPOLL | 1,691 | 3% | October 2023 | [76] |
United States | YouGov | 1,500 | 12% | May 2023 | [77] |
Notable monarchists
editSeveral notable public figures who advocated for monarchy or are monarchists include:
Arts and entertainment
edit- Honoré de Balzac,French novelist & playwright[78]
- Fyodor Dostoevsky,Russian novelist & essayist
- Pedro Muñoz Seca,Spanish playwright
- T.S. Eliot,American-British poet & writer
- Salvador Dalí,Spanish artist
- Hergé,Belgian cartoonist
- Éric Rohmer,French filmmaker[79]
- Yukio Mishima,Japanese author
- Joan Collins,English actress & author[80]
- Stephen Fry,English actor & author[81]
Clergy
edit- Thomas Aquinas,Italian Catholic priest & theologian[82]
- Robert Bellarmine,ItalianCardinal& theologian[83]
- Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet,French Bishop & theologian[84]
- Jules Mazarin,Italian Cardinal & minister
- André-Hercule de Fleury,French Cardinal & minister
- Pius VI,ItalianPope& ruler of thePapal States[85][86]
- Fabrizio Ruffo,Italian Cardinal & treasurer
- Ercole Consalvi,ItalianCardinal Secretary of State
- Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y Dávalos,Mexican Archbishop & Regent of theSecond Mexican Empire
- Louis Gaston Adrien de Ségur,French Bishop & writer
- Louis Billot,French priest & theologian
- Pius XII,ItalianPope& sovereign of Vatican City[87][88]
- József Mindszenty,Hungarian Cardinal &Prince-primate
Philosophy
edit- Dante Alighieri,Italian poet & philosopher[89]
- Jean Bodin,French political philosopher
- Robert Filmer,English political theorist[90]
- Thomas Hobbes,English philosopher[91]
- Joseph de Maistre,Savoyard philosopher & writer[92]
- Juan Donoso Cortés,Spanish politician & political theologian
- Søren Kierkegaard,Danish philosopher & theologian[93]
- Charles Maurras,French author & philosopher[94]
- Kang Youwei,Chinese political thinker & reformer
- Ralph Adams Cram,American architect & writer[95]
- Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn,Austrian political scientist & philosopher
- Vernon Bogdanor,British political scientist & historian[96]
- Roger Scruton,English philosopher & writer[97]
- Hans Hermann-Hoppe,German-American political theorist[98]
- Charles A. Coulombe,American historian & author
Politics
edit- François-René de Chateaubriand,French historian &Ambassador[99]
- Manuel Belgrano,Argentinian politician
- Klemens von Metternich,AustrianChancellor
- Miguel Miramón,MexicanPresident& military general
- Otto von Bismarck,GermanChancellor
- Juan Vázquez de Mella,Spanish politician & political theorist
- Panagis Tsaldaris,GreekPrime Minister
- Winston Churchill,BritishPrime Minister of the U.K.
- Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu,RomanianPrime Minister[100]
- Salome Zourabichvili,GeorgianPresident[101]
- Tony Abbott,AustralianPrime Minister[102][103]
- Carla Zambelli,Brazilian politician[104]
Monarchist movements and parties
edit- Action Française
- Alfonsism
- Alliance Royale
- Australian Monarchist League
- Australians for Constitutional Monarchy
- Bonapartism
- Black-Yellow Alliance
- Carlism
- Cavalier
- Chouannerie
- Conservative-Monarchist Club
- Constantian Society
- Constitutionalist Party of Iran
- Druk Phuensum Tshogpa
- Hawaiian sovereignty movement[note 4]
- Hovpartiet
- International Monarchist League
- Jacobitism
- Koruna Česká (party)
- Legality Movement
- Legitimism
- Liberal Democratic Party of Russia
- Loyalism
- Loyalist (American Revolution)
- Miguelist
- Monarchist League of Canada
- Monarchist Party of Russia
- Monarchy New Zealand
- Movement for the Restoration of the Kingdom of Serbia
- Nouvelle Action Royaliste
- Orléanism
- People's Alliance for Democracy
- Rastriya Prajatantra Party
- Royal Stuart Society
- Royalist Party
- Sanfedismo
- Serbian Renewal Movement
- Sonnō jōi
- Tradition und Leben
- Traditionalist Communion
- Ultra-royalist
Anti-monarchism
editCriticism of monarchy can be targeted against the generalform of government—monarchy—or more specifically, toparticular monarchical governmentsas controlled by hereditaryroyal families.In some cases, this criticism can be curtailed by legal restrictions and be consideredcriminal speech,as inlèse-majesté.Monarchies inEuropeand their underlying concepts, such as theDivine Right of Kings,were often criticized during theAge of Enlightenment,which notably paved the way to theFrench Revolutionand theproclamation of the abolition of the monarchyinFrance.Earlier, theAmerican Revolutionhad seen thePatriotssuppress theLoyalistsand expel all royal officials. In this century, monarchies are present in the world in many forms with different degrees of royal power and involvement in civil affairs:
- Absolute monarchies inBrunei,Eswatini,Oman,Qatar,Saudi Arabia,theUnited Arab Emirates,and theVatican City;
- Constitutional monarchies in theUnited Kingdomand its sovereign'sCommonwealth Realms,and inBelgium,Denmark,Japan,Liechtenstein,Luxembourg,Malaysia,Monaco,The Netherlands,Norway,Spain,Sweden,Thailand,and others.
The twentieth century, beginning with the 1917February RevolutioninRussiaand accelerated by twoworld wars,saw many European countries replace theirmonarchieswithrepublics,while others replaced theirabsolute monarchieswithconstitutional monarchies.Reverse movements have also occurred, with brief returns of the monarchy in France under theBourbon Restoration,theJuly Monarchy,and theSecond French Empire,the Stuarts after theEnglish Civil Warand the Bourbons inSpainafter theFranco dictatorship.
See also
editNotes
edit- ^Chapters LVIII-LXIV
- ^abcdFigures for Austria is the average percentage of supporters from several opinion polls taken prior to November 2018; as reported byEFE.
- ^Among respondents, 22 per cent answered that they were not opposed to a monarchy in principle, but could not think of a person "worthy of the Russian throne", whereas 6 per cent believed there was.
- ^Some activists within the sovereignty movement advocate for a restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy, while others push for an independent Hawaiian Republic.
- ^While theXia dynastyis typically considered to be the first orthodox Chinese dynasty, numerous sources including theBook of Documentsmention two other dynasties that preceded the Xia: the "Tang" (Đường) and the "Yu"(Ngu) dynasties.[10][11][12][13]The former is sometimes called the "Ancient Tang" (Cổ đường) to distinguish it from other dynasties named "Tang".[14]Should the historicity of these earlier dynasties be attested,Yu the Greatwould not have been the initiator of dynastic rule in China.
- ^All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China following the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of theXuantong Emperorin AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of theChinese monarchy.
- ^In English, the use of the termMikado(Đế / ngự môn)for the emperor was once common but is now considered obsolete.[17]
- ^Leviathan, 19.4, pp.124-5
- ^Leviathan, 19.5, p.125
- ^Leviathan, 19.6, p.125
- ^Leviathan, 19.7, p.125
References
edit- ^Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, 1989 edition, p. 924.
- ^Bohn, H. G. (1849).The Standard Library Cyclopedia of Political, Constitutional, Statistical and Forensic Knowledge.p. 640.
Arepublic,according to the modern usage of the word, signifies a political community which is not under monarchical government... in which one person does not possess the entire sovereign power.
- ^"Definition of Republic".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Retrieved2017-02-18.
a government having a chief of state who is not a monarch... a government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law
- ^"The definition of republic".Dictionary.com.Retrieved2017-02-18.
a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by representatives chosen directly or indirectly by them.... a state in which the head of government is not a monarch or other hereditary head of state.
- ^"Sumerian King List"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 November 2013.Retrieved7 April2012.
- ^Conrad Phillip Kottak (1991).Cultural Anthropology.McGraw-Hill. p. 124.ISBN978-0-07-035615-3.
- ^A. Adu Boahen; J. F. Ade Ajayi; Michael Tidy (1986).Topics in West African History.Longman Group. p. 19.ISBN978-0-582-58504-1.
- ^"Enlightenment".HISTORY.21 February 2020.Retrieved2020-06-22.
- ^"A beginner's guide to the Age of Enlightenment (article)".Khan Academy.Retrieved2020-06-22.
- ^Nadeau, Randall (2012).The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions.John Wiley & Sons. p. 31.ISBN9781444361971.
- ^Yeo, Khiok-Khng (2008).Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology.James Clarke & Company Limited. p. 24.ISBN9780227903308.
- ^Chao, Yuan-ling (2009).Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850.Peter Lang. p. 73.ISBN9781433103810.
- ^Wang, Shumin (2002)."Hạ, thương, chu chi tiền hoàn hữu cá ngu triều".Hebei Academic Journal.22(1): 146–147.Retrieved20 August2020.
- ^"Viễn cổ thời kỳ đích" cổ đường triều "? Bỉ hạ triều hoàn tảo 1600 niên, như bị chứng thật lịch sử hoặc tương cải tả".9 November 2019.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^Skutsch, Carl (2013).Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities.Routledge. p. 287.ISBN9781135193881.
- ^"Tennō".Encyclopaedia Britannica.Retrieved12 August2021.
- ^Kanʼichi Asakawa.The early institutional life of Japan: a study in the reform of 645 A.D..Tokyo: Shueisha (1903), p. 25. "We purposely avoid, in spite of its wide usage in foreign literature, the misleading termMikado.If it be not for the natural curiosity of the races, which always seeks something novel and loves to call foreign things by foreign names, it is hard to understand why this obsolete and ambiguous word should so sedulously be retained. It originally meant not only the Sovereign, but also his house, the court, and even the State, and its use in historical writings causes many difficulties which it is unnecessary to discuss here in detail. The native Japanese employ the term neither in speech nor in writing. It might as well be dismissed with great advantage from sober literature as it has been for the official documents. "
- ^"Tối cao tài phán sở phán lệ tập sự kiện phiên hào bình thành 1( hành ツ)126".Supreme Court of Japan.RetrievedAugust 10,2020.
- ^Hoye, Timothy. (1999).Japanese Politics: Fixed and Floating Worlds,p. 78; "According to legend, the first Japanese emperor was Jinmu. Along with the next 13 emperors,Jimmuis not considered an actual, historical figure. Historically verifiable Emperors of Japan date from the early sixth century withKinmei."
- ^Henshall, Kenneth (2013).Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945.Scarecrow Press. p. 100.ISBN978-0-8108-7872-3.
- ^Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric.(2005)."Kamakura-jidai"inJapan Encyclopedia,p. 459.
- ^Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845".Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.26:102–124.doi:10.2307/2718461.JSTOR2718461.
- ^"Meiji Constitution | 1889, Japan".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved2017-08-21.
- ^"The Constitution of Japan".Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet.Retrieved8 July2021.
- ^Oda, Hiroshi (2009). "Sources of Law".Japanese Law.Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232185.001.1.ISBN978-0-19-923218-5.
- ^Wasserman, Janek (2014)."Österreichische Aktion: Monarchism, Authoritarianism, and the Unity of the Austrian Conservative Ideological Field during the First Republic".Central European History.47(1): 76–104.doi:10.1017/S0008938914000636.ISSN0008-9389.JSTOR43280409.S2CID145335762.
- ^Guyotjeannin, Olivier, ed. (1996).Clovis chez les historiens(in French). Librairie Droz. pp. 241ff.ISBN9782600055925.
- ^Sewell, Elizabeth Missing(1876).Popular History of France.Longman.pp. 48–49.
- ^Asmuss, Burkhard (27 January 2023)."Die Deutschnationale Volkspartei (DNVP)"[German National People's Party (DNVP)].Deutsches Historisches Museum(in German).Retrieved30 May2023.
- ^Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 134 del 20 giugno 1946
- ^
Casanova, Julián(29 July 2010) [2007].The Spanish Republic and Civil War.Translated by Douch, Martin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 2010). p. 1.ISBN9781139490573.Retrieved10 September2022.
[...] the local elections of 12 April [...] turned into a plebiscite between Monarchy and republicanism. It was soon clear that the republicans had won in most of the provincial capitals. [...] Alfonso XIII abdicated, and a good many cities and towns proclaimed the Republic on 14 April 1931.
- ^"BBC Mundo - América Latina - los miskitos luchan por su independencia".
- ^Hamilton, Alexander (1962). The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Volume 9. New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-08903-1
- ^Krauel, Richard (October 1911)."Prince Henry of Prussia and the Regency of the United States, 1786".The American Historical Review.17(1): 44–51.doi:10.1086/ahr/17.1.44.
- ^Enciclopédia Barsa.Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil.
- ^"Untitled Document".home1.gte.net.Archived fromthe originalon 10 February 2001.Retrieved11 January2022.
- ^Otto von Habsburg"Monarchy or Republic?".( "Excerpted from The Conservative Tradition in European Thought, Copyright 1970 by Educational Resources Corporation." )
- ^abBogdanor, Vernon (6 December 2000)."The Guardian has got it wrong".The Guardian.
- ^abFeeney, Matthew (July 25, 2013)."The Benefits of Monarchy".Reason magazine.
- ^Orwell, George.Spring 1944 Partisan Review
- ^Liberty or Equality: The Challenge of Our Time.The Mises Institute. 2014. p. 10.
- ^David Gordon,Review of Hans-Hermann Hoppe,Democracy: The God that Failed,"The Mises Review" ofLudwig von Mises Institute,Volume 8, Number 1, Spring 2002; Volume 8, Number 1.
- ^C.S. Lewis(26 August 1943)."Equality".The Spectator.
- ^Matthews, Dylan (13 July 2013)."Shut up, royal baby haters. Monarchy is awesome".The Washington Post.
- ^ab"The monarchy: the view from the" Commonwealth realms "".Lord Ashcroft Polls.5 May 2023.
- ^"Support for a Republic".Essential Research.15 May 2023.
- ^"Kwart van de Belgen wil republiek in plaats van monarchie".HLN.be.17 September 2017.
- ^Otis, Daniel (1 June 2022)."Majority of Canadians want Queen to apologize for residential schools: survey".Nanos Research.
- ^"What do the Danes think of their Royal Family and what role does the Danish Monarchy have?".YourDanishLife.7 January 2022.
- ^"74% back emperor as symbol of state defined by current Constitution: Mainichi poll".Mainichi Daily News.2019-05-03.Retrieved2023-06-24.
- ^"'We need the king!' Lesotho fed up with politicians' mistakes ".TimesLive.11 June 2018.
- ^"Government bans Le Monde opinion poll on royalty".8 March 2009.
- ^"Steun voor de monarchie".EenVandaag(in Dutch).Retrieved2024-05-06.
- ^"The monarchy: the view from the" Commonwealth realms "".Lord Ashcroft Polls.5 May 2023.
- ^"Sociometric Survey (Jan 6): 58,6% support the Monarchy".Electomania(in Spanish). 2024-01-06.Retrieved2024-02-07.
- ^"TV4".2023.
- ^Morris, James; Nyugen, Son (25 October 2020)."Strength of support for the monarchy being seen this week as political unrest deepens into standoff".Thai Examiner.
- ^"Tuvaluans vote against Republic".30 April 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 28 December 2008.
- ^"A century after Austrian-Hungarian Empire's fall, some nostalgic for monarchy".www.efe.com.EFE, S.A. 11 November 2018.Retrieved3 December2018.
- ^"Survey shows support for republic".Barbados Today.21 December 2021.
- ^"CMB Pesquisa de conhecimento e opinião pública"(in Portuguese). 27 September 2019.Retrieved16 February2020.
- ^Thomas, Mark."Two-fifths of Croatians want a return to the monarchy".www.thedubrovniktimes.com.The Dubrovnik Times.Retrieved26 January2019.
- ^"Průzkum ke 100 rokům od vzniku Československa: kdyby se monarchie nerozpadla, měli bychom se lépe nebo stejně".iROZHLAS(in Czech).Retrieved3 December2018.
- ^"BVA Group - Société d'études et conseil"(PDF).BVA. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 March 2019.Retrieved3 December2018.
- ^Kikacheishvili, Tamar (17 April 2017)."Georgia: Five-Year-Old Prince Prepares to Reign".Eurasianet.Retrieved20 April2020.
- ^Schmidt, Matthias (13 April 2016)."König(in) von Deutschland: Jeder Sechste wäre dafür"(in German). YouGov.Retrieved20 April2020.
- ^"Το ΒΗΜΑ onLine - ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΑ"(in Greek). 25 April 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 25 April 2007.Retrieved3 December2018.
- ^"GYŐZTEK A HABSBURGOK: AZ AZONNALI OLVASÓINAK 46 SZÁZALÉKA ÚJRA KIRÁLYSÁGOT SZERETNE".azonnali.hu. 17 May 2021.
- ^"Emanule Filiberto:" Politici? Sono dei parac*** "". Occhio, il Savoia vuole fare il re "(in Italian).Retrieved3 December2018.
- ^"¿Qué opinan los mexicanos de la Monarquía?".Parametría(in Spanish).Retrieved18 June2021.
- ^Sengupta, Somini (3 April 2008)."In Nepal, Long-Lived Monarchy Fades From View".The New York Times.Retrieved31 December2019.
- ^"Portugueses optam com clareza pela república"[Portuguese opt clearly for the Republic].Diário de Notícias(in Portuguese).Retrieved13 September2021.
- ^Victor, Lupu (25 April 2016)."Only 21 pc of Romanians want monarchy".www.romaniajournal.com.Romania Journal.Retrieved20 April2020.
- ^Galanina, Angelina (23 March 2017)."Россияне против монархии".Izvestia(in Russian). National Media Group.Retrieved20 April2020.
- ^Danas."39 percent of Serbians in favor of monarchy, poll shows".b92.Retrieved31 December2019.
- ^"MetroPOLL anketi:" Türkiye'nin nabzı, Atatürk, cumhuriyet ve laiklik diye atıyor "".medyascope.tv(in Turkish). November 2023.Retrieved2023-11-08.
- ^"Three in five Americans say it would be bad for the U.S. to have a monarchy".YouGov. 5 May 2023.
- ^"Balzac: A Fight Against Decandence and Materialism".Mtholyoke.edu.Archived fromthe originalon 30 June 2016.Retrieved26 November2017.
- ^Brody, Richard (24 March 2021)."Looking Behind Éric Rohmer's Cinematic Style".The New Yorker.
- ^"Joan Collins so happy with husband".21 January 2012.
- ^Stephen, Fry (30 June 2017)."Happy Birthday, America. One Small Suggestion".The New York Times.
- ^Aquinas, Thomas.De Regno, to the King of Cyprus
- ^Bellarmine, Robert.On the Roman Pontiff.
- ^Bossuet, Jacques-Bénigne.Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture
- ^Pius VI,Pourquoi Notre Voix
- ^Coulombe, Charles A. (2003).A History of the Popes: Vicars of Christ.MJF Books. p. 392.
- ^White, Steven F. (2020).Modern Italy's Founding Fathers: The Making of a Postwar Republic.Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 108–109.
- ^Mammarealla, Giuseppe (1966).Italy After Fascism A Political History 1943–1965.Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 114.
- ^Alighieri, Dante.De Monarchia
- ^Filmer, Robert (1680).Patriarcha.
- ^Sommerville, J.P. (1992).Thomas Hobbes: Political Ideas in Historical Context.MacMillan. pp. 256–324.ISBN978-0-333-49599-5.
- ^Beum, Robert (1997). "Ultra-Royalism Revisited",Modern Age,Vol. 39, No. 3, p. 305.
- ^Garff, Joachim.Søren Kierkegaard: A Biography.p. 487.
- ^"Charles Maurras on the French Revolution · Liberty, Equality, Fraternity".Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media.Archived fromthe originalon 6 January 2020.Retrieved12 April2019.
- ^Cram, Ralph Adams (1936)."Invitation to Monarchy".
- ^Bogdanor, Vernon (6 December 2000)."The Guardian has got it wrong".The Guardian.
- ^"'A Focus of Loyalty Higher Than the State: The monarchy created peace in Central Europe, and its loss precipitated 70 years of conflict.' by Roger Scruton ".Los Angeles Times.1991-06-16.
- ^Hermann-Hoppe, Hans.Democracy: The God that Failed.
- ^Chateubriand.Of Buonaparte, and the Bourbons, and of the Necessity of Rallying Round Our Legitimate Princes
- ^"Monarhia salvează PSD. Tăriceanu şi Bădălău susţin un referendum pe tema monarhiei. Când ar avea loc acesta".18 December 2017.
- ^Civil Georgia (2007-10-08)."Civil.Ge - Politicians Comment on Constitutional Monarchy Proposal".www.civil.ge.
- ^Pearlman, Johnathan (7 September 2013)."Ten things you didn't know about Tony Abbott".telegraph.co.uk.Telegraph Media Group Limited.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-12.Retrieved19 Nov2013.
- ^Johnson, Carol; Wanna, John; Lee, Hsu-Ann (2015).Abbott's Gambit: The 2013 Australian Federal Election.ANU Press. p. 281.ISBN978-1-9250-2209-4.
- ^Viegas, Nonato (November 16, 2017)."Líder de movimento que pediu impeachment de Dilma agora é monarquista".ÉPOCA.
External links
edit- The Monarchist League
- IMC,official site of theInternational Monarchist Conference.
- SYLM,Support Your Local Monarch, the independent monarchist community.