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Claude Monet

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"Monet" redirects here. For other uses, seeMonet (disambiguation).Not to be confused withÉdouard Manet,another painter of the same era.

Oscar-Claude Monet(UK:/ˈmɒneɪ/,US:/moʊˈneɪ,məˈ-/,French:[klodmɔnɛ];14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) was a French painter and founder ofimpressionismpainting who is seen as a key precursor tomodernism,especially in his attempts to paint nature as he perceived it.[1]During his long career, he was the most consistent and prolific practitioner of impressionism's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions of nature, especially as applied toplein air(outdoor) landscape painting.[2]The term "Impressionism" is derived from the title of his paintingImpression, soleil levant,exhibited in 1874 (the "exhibition of rejects" ) initiated by Monet and his associates as an alternative to theSalon.

Claude Monet
Monetc. 1899
Born
Oscar-Claude Monet

(1840-11-14)14 November 1840
Paris,Kingdom of France
Died5 December 1926(1926-12-05)(aged 86)
Giverny,France
Education
Years active1865–1926
Known forPainting, sketching
Notable work
MovementImpressionism
Spouses
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    (m.1870; died 1879)​
  • ​
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    (m.1892; died 1911)​
Children
Patron(s)
Signature

Monet was raised inLe Havre,Normandy,and became interested in the outdoors and drawing from an early age. Although his mother, Louise-Justine Aubrée Monet, supported his ambitions to be a painter, his father, Claude-Adolphe, disapproved and wanted him to pursue a career in business. He was very close to his mother, but she died in January 1857 when he was sixteen years old, and he was sent to live with his childless, widowed but wealthy aunt, Marie-Jeanne Lecadre. He went on to study at theAcadémie Suisse,and under the academichistory painterCharles Gleyre,where he was a classmate ofAuguste Renoir.His early works include landscapes, seascapes, and portraits, but attracted little attention. A key early influence wasEugène Boudinwho introduced him to the concept ofplein airpainting. From 1883, Monet lived inGiverny,also in northern France, where he purchaseda house and propertyand began a vast landscaping project, including a water-lily pond.

Monet's ambition to document the French countryside led to a method of painting the same scene many times so as to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons. Among the best-known examples are hisseries of haystacks(1890–1891),paintings of Rouen Cathedral(1892–1894), and thepaintings of water liliesin his garden in Giverny that occupied him continuously for the last 20 years of his life.

Frequently exhibited and successful during his lifetime, Monet's fame and popularity soared in the second half of the 20th century when he became one of the world's most famous painters and a source of inspiration for a burgeoning group of artists.

Biography

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Birth and childhood

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Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45rue Laffitte,in the9th arrondissement of Paris.[3]He was the second son of Claude Adolphe Monet and Louise Justine Aubrée Monet, both of them second-generation Parisians. On 20 May 1841, he was baptised in the local Paris church,Notre-Dame-de-Lorette,as Oscar-Claude, but his parents called him simply Oscar.[3][4]Despite being baptised Catholic, Monet later became an atheist.[5][6]

In 1845, his family moved toLe HavreinNormandy.His father, awholesalemerchant,wanted him to go into the family'sship-chandlingand grocery business,[7][8]but Monet wanted to become an artist. His mother was a singer, and supported Monet's desire for a career in art.[9]

On 1 April 1851, he entered Le Havre secondary school of the arts.[10]He was an apathetic student who, after showing skill in art from young age, began drawing caricatures and portraits of acquaintances at age 15 for money.[11]He began his first drawing lessons fromJacques-François Ochard,a former student ofJacques-Louis David.[11]In around 1858, he met fellow artistEugène Boudin,who would encourage Monet to develop his techniques, teach him the "en plein air"(outdoor) techniques for painting and take Monet on painting excursions.[12][13]Monet thought of Boudin as his master, whom "he owed everything to" for his later success.[14]

In 1857, his mother died.[15]He lived with his father and aunt, Marie-Jeanne Lecadre; Lecadre would be a source of support for Monet in his early art career.[13][15]

The Woman in the Green Dress,Camille Doncieux,1866,Kunsthalle Bremen

Paris and Algeria

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From 1858 to 1860, Monet continued his studies in Paris, where he enrolled inAcadémie Suisseand metCamille Pissarroin 1859.[16][17]He was called formilitary serviceand served under theChasseurs d'Afrique(African Hunters), inAlgeria,from 1861 to 1862.[18]His time in Algeria had a powerful effect on Monet, who later said that the light and vivid colours of North Africa "contained the gem of my future researches".[19]Illness forced his return to Le Havre, where he bought out his remaining service and metJohan Barthold Jongkind,who together with Boudin was an important mentor to Monet.[12]

Le déjeuner sur l'herbe(right section), 1865–1866, Paris, withGustave Courbet,Frédéric Bazilleand Camille Doncieux, first wife of the artist,Musée d'Orsay[20]

Upon his return to Paris, with the permission of his father, he divided his time between his childhood home and the countryside and enrolled inCharles Gleyre's studio, where he metPierre-Auguste RenoirandFrédéric Bazille.[15][21][22]Bazille eventually became his closest friend.[14]In search of motifs, they traveled toHonfleurwhere Monet painted several "studies" of the harbor and the mouth of the Seine.[23]Monet often painted alongside Renoir andAlfred Sisley,[24]both of whom shared his desire to articulate new standards of beauty in conventional subjects.[25]

During this time he paintedWomen in Garden,his first successful large-scale painting, andLe déjeuner sur l'herbe,the "most important painting of Monet's early period".[24][26][27]Having debuted at the Salon in 1865 withLa Pointe de la Hève at Low TideandMouth of the Seine at Honfleurto large praise, he hopedLe déjeuner sur l'herbewould help him break through into the Salon of 1866. He could not finish it in a timely manner and instead submittedThe Woman in the Green DressandPavé de Chaillyto acceptance.[15][28]Thereafter, he submitted works to the Salon annually until 1870, but they were accepted by the juries only twice, in 1866 and 1868.[12]He sent no more works to the Salon until his single, final attempt in 1880.[12]His work was considered radical, "discouraged at all official levels".[21]

Three Cows Grazing,1868, pastel on paper

In 1867 his then-mistress,Camille Doncieux—whom he had met two years earlier as a model for his paintings—gave birth to their first child,Jean.[13]Monet had a strong relationship with Jean, claiming that Camille was his lawful wife so Jean would be consideredlegitimate.[29]Monet's father stopped financially supporting him as a result of the relationship. Earlier in the year Monet had been forced to move to his aunt's house inSainte-Adresse.[15][28]There he immersed himself in his work, although a temporary problem with his eyesight, probably related to stress, prevented him from working in sunlight.[15][28][12]Monet loved his family dearly, painting many portraits of them such aschild with a cup, a portrait of Jean Monet.This painting in particular shows the first signs of Monets' later famous impressionistic work.[30]

With help from the art collector Louis-Joachim Gaudibert, he reunited with Camille and moved toÉtretatthe following year.[14][15]Around this time, he was trying to establish himself as a figure painter who depicted the "explicitly contemporary, bourgeois", an intention that continued into the 1870s.[15][31][21][22]He did evolve his painting technique and integrate stylistic experimentation in his plein-air style—as evidenced byThe Beach at Sainte-AdresseandOn the Bank of the Seinerespectively, the former being his "first sustained campaign of painting that involved tourism".[15][28]

Several of his paintings had been purchased by Gaudibert, whocommissioneda painting of his wife, alongside other projects; the Gaudiberts were for two years "the most supportive of Monet's hometownpatrons".[12][29]Monet would later be financially supported by the artist and art collectorGustave Caillebotte,Bazille and perhapsGustave Courbet,although creditors still pursued him.[12][21]

Exile and Argenteuil

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Portrait of Claude Monet,Carolus-Duran,c. 1867

He married Camille on 28 June 1870, just before the outbreak of theFranco-Prussian War.[32]During the war, he and his family lived in London and the Netherlands to avoidconscription.[15][16]Monet andCharles-François Daubignylived in self-imposedexile.[16][A]While living in London, Monet met his old friend Pissarro, the American painterJames Abbott McNeill Whistler,and befriended his first and primaryart dealerPaul Durand-Ruel;an encounter that would be decisive for his career. There he saw and admired the works ofJohn ConstableandJ. M. W. Turnerand was impressed by Turner's treatment of light, especially in the works depicting the fog on theThames.[12][15][33][34]He repeatedly painted the Thames,Hyde ParkandGreen Park.[15]In the spring of 1871, his works were refused authorisation for inclusion in the Royal Academy exhibition and police suspected him of revolutionary activities.[35][32]That same year he learned of his father's death.[12]

The family moved toArgenteuilin 1871, where he, influenced by his time with Dutch painters, mostly painted theSeine's surrounding area.[31][36]He acquired a sailboat to paint on the river.[12]In 1874, he signed a six-and-a-half year lease and moved into a newly built "rose-colored house with green shutters" in Argenteuil, where he painted fifteen paintings of his garden from apanoramicperspective.[31][37]Paintings such asGladiolimarked what was likely the first time Monet had cultivated a garden for the purpose of his art.[31]The house and garden became the "single most important" motif of his final years in Argenteuil.[37]For the next four years, he painted mostly in Argenteuil and took an interest in the colour theories of chemistMichel Eugène Chevreul.[12]For three years of the decade, he rented a large villa inSaint-Denisfor a thousand francs per year.Camille Monet on a Garden Benchdisplays the garden of the villa, and what some have argued to be Camille's grief upon learning of her father's death.[38]

Monet and Camille were often in financial straits during this period—they were unable to pay their hotel bill during the summer of 1870 and likely lived on the outskirts of London as a result of insufficient funds. An inheritance from his father, together with sales of his paintings, did, however, enable them to hire two servants and a gardener by 1872.[13][39][40]Following the successful exhibition of some maritime paintings and the winning of a silver medal at Le Havre, Monet's paintings were seized by creditors, from whom they were bought back by a shipping merchant, Gaudibert, who was also a patron of Boudin.[41]

Impressionism

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Impression, Sunrise(Impression, soleil levant),1872; the painting that gave its name to the style and artistic movement.Musée Marmottan Monet,Paris

When Durand-Ruel's previous support of Monet and his peers began to decline, Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Sisley,Paul Cézanne,Edgar Degas,andBerthe Morisotexhibited their work independently; they did so under the name the Anonymous Society of Painters, Sculptors and Engravers for which Monet was a leading figure in its formation.[12][15]He was inspired by the style and subject matter of his slightly older contemporaries, Pissarro and Édouard Manet.[42]The group, whose title was chosen to avoid association with any style or movement, were unified in their independence from the Salon and rejection of the prevailingacademicism.[12][43]Monet gained a reputation as the foremost landscape painter of the group.[16]

At the first exhibition, in 1874, Monet displayed, among others,Impression, Sunrise,The LuncheonandBoulevard des Capucines.[44]The art criticLouis Leroywrote a hostile review. Taking particular notice ofImpression, Sunrise(1872), a hazy depiction of Le Havre port and stylistic detour, he coined the term "Impressionism".Conservative critics and the public derided the group, with the term initially being ironic and denoting the painting as unfinished.[15][43]More progressive critics praised the depiction of modern life—Louis Edmond Duranty called their style a "revolution in painting".[43]Leroy later regretted inspiring the name, as he believed that they were a group "whose majority had nothing impressionist".[14]

The total attendance is estimated at 3500. Monet pricedImpression: Sunriseat 1000 francs but failed to sell it.[45][46][47]The exhibition was open to anyone prepared to pay 60 francs and gave artists the opportunity to show their work without the interference of a jury.[45][46][47]Another exhibition was held in 1876, again in opposition to the Salon. Monet displayed 18 paintings, includingThe Beach at Sainte-Adressewhich showcased multiple Impressionist characteristics.[28][48]

For the third exhibition, on 5 April 1877, he selected seven paintings from the dozen he had made ofGare Saint-Lazarein the past three months, the first time he had "synced as many paintings of the same site, carefully coordinating their scenes and temporalities".[49]The paintings were well received by critics, who especially praised the way he captured the arrival and departures of the trains.[49]By the fourth exhibition his involvement was by means of negotiation on Caillebotte's part.[15]His last time exhibiting with the Impressionists was in 1882—four years before the final Impressionist exhibition.[50][51]

Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Morisot, Cézanne and Sisley proceeded to experiment with new methods of depicting reality. They rejected the dark, contrasting lighting ofromanticand realist paintings, in favour of the pale tones of their peers' paintings such as those byJean-Baptiste-Camille Corotand Boudin.[52]After developing methods for painting transient effects, Monet would go on to seek more demanding subjects, new patrons and collectors; his paintings produced in the early 1870s left a lasting impact on the movement and his peers—many of whom moved to Argenteuil as a result of admiring his depiction.[15][53]

Death of Camille and Vétheuil

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Claude Monet,Camille Monet On Her Deathbed,1879,Musée d'Orsay,Paris

In 1875, he returned to figure painting withWoman with a Parasol - Madame Monet and Her Son,after effectively abandoning it withThe Luncheon.His interest in the figure continued for the next four years—reaching its crest in 1877 and concluding altogether in 1890.[29][61]In an "unusually revealing" letter toThéodore Duret,Monet discussed his revitalised interest: "I am working like never before on a new endeavour figures in plein air, as I understand them. This is an old dream, one that has always obsessed me and that I would like to master once and for all. But it is all so difficult! I am working very hard, almost to the point of making myself ill".

In 1876, Camille Monet became seriously ill.[62]Their second son,Michel,was born in 1878, after which Camille's health deteriorated further.[62]In the autumn of that year, they moved to the village ofVétheuilwhere they shared a house with the family ofErnest Hoschedé,a wealthy department store owner and patron of the arts who had commissioned four paintings from Monet.[12][15]In 1878, Camille was diagnosed withuterine cancer.[63]She died the next year.[15]Her death, alongside financial difficulties—once having to leave his house to avoid creditors—afflicted Monet's career; Hoschedé had recently purchased several paintings but soon went bankrupt, leaving for Paris in hopes of regaining his fortune, as interest in the Impressionists dwindled.[16][12][15]

Pierre-Auguste Renoir,Portrait of the Painter Claude Monet,1875,Musée d'Orsay
Carolus-Duran,Alice Hoschedé,second wife of Claude Monet and mother ofBlanche Hoschedé Monet,1878
The Monet and Hoschedé familiesc. 1880from left to right: Claude Monet, Alice Hoschedé, Jean-Pierre Hoschedé, Jacques Hoschedé,Blanche Hoschedé Monet,Jean Monet,Michel Monet, Martha Hoschedé, Germaine Hoschedé,Suzanne Hoschedé

Monet made a study in oils of his late wife. Many years later, he confessed to his friendGeorges Clemenceauthat his need to analyse colours was both a joy and a torment to him. He explained: "I one day found myself looking at my beloved wife's dead face and just systematically noting the colours according to an automatic reflex".[64]John Bergerdescribes the work as "a blizzard of white, grey, purplish paint... a terrible blizzard of loss which will forever efface her features. In fact there can be very few death-bed paintings which have been so intensely felt or subjectively expressive."[65]

Monet's study of the Seine continued. He submitted two paintings to the Salon in 1880, one of which was accepted.[12]He began to abandon Impressionist techniques as his paintings utilised darker tones and displayed environments, such as the Seine river, in harsh weather. For the rest of the decade, he focused on the elemental aspect of nature.[24][53]His personal life influenced his distancing from the Impressionists.[15]He returned to Étretat and expressed in letters toAlice Hoschedé—who he would marry in 1892, following her husband's death the preceding year—a desire to die.[14][15][61]In 1881, he moved with Alice and her children to Poissy and again sold his paintings toDurand-Ruel.[12]Alice's third daughter,Suzanne,would become Monet's "preferred model", after Camille.[61]

In April 1883, looking out the window of the train between Vernon and Gasny, he discovered Giverny in Normandy.[66]That same year his first major retrospective show was held.[53]

In a letter sent to Monet in 1884,Paul Durand-Ruelmentions Monet’s financial worries, and tells him that both the stockbroker Theodore-Charles Gadala and Georges Clemenceau have purchased paintings.[67]Monet's struggles with creditors ended following prosperous trips; he went to Bordighera in 1884, and brought back 50 landscapes.[12][53]He travelled to the Netherlands in 1886 to paint the tulips. He soon met and became friends withGustave Geffroy,who published an article on Monet.[12]Despite his qualms, Monet's paintings were sold in America and contributed towards his financial security.[15]In contrast to the last two decades of his career, Monet favoured working alone—and felt that he was always better when he did, having regularly "long[ed] for solitude, away from crowded tourist resorts and sophisticated urban settings".[68][53]Such a desire was recurrent in his letters to Alice.[68][61]

Giverny

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Monet'swater garden,2019

In 1883, Monet and his family renteda house and gardensinGiverny,which provided him domestic stability he had not yet enjoyed.[15]The house was situated near the main road between the towns ofVernonand Gasny at Giverny. There was a barn that doubled as a painting studio, orchards and a small garden. The house was close enough to the local schools for the children to attend, and the surrounding landscape provided numerous natural areas for Monet to paint.[69][70][71]

The family worked and built up the gardens, and Monet's fortunes began to change for the better as Durand-Ruel had increasing success in selling his paintings.[72]The gardens were Monet's greatest source of inspiration for 40 years.[73][74]In 1890, Monet purchased the house.[53]During the 1890s, Monet built a greenhouse and a second studio, a spacious building well lit with skylights.

Monet wrote daily instructions to his gardener, precise designs and layouts for plantings, and invoices for his floral purchases and his collection of botany books. As Monet's wealth grew, his garden evolved. He remained its architect, even after he hired seven gardeners.[75]Monet purchased additional land with a water meadow.[12]White water lilies local to France were planted along with imported cultivars from South America and Egypt, resulting in a range of colours including yellow, blue and white lilies that turned pink with age.[76]In 1902, he increased the size of hiswater gardenby nearly 4000 square metres; the pond was enlarged in 1901 and 1910 witheaselsinstalled all around to allow different perspectives to be captured.[15][74]

Dissatisfied with the limitations of Impressionism, Monet began to work on series of paintings displaying single subjects—haystacks,poplarsand theRouen Cathedral—to resolve his frustration.[24][61]These series of paintings provided widespread critical and financial success; in 1898, 61 paintings were exhibited at the Petit gallery.[77]He also begun a series ofMornings on the Seine,which portrayed the dawn hours of the river.[15]In 1887 and 1889 he displayed a series of paintings of Belle Île to rave reviews by critics.[68]Monet chose the location in the hope of finding a "new aesthetic language that bypassed learned formulas, one that would be both true to nature and unique to him as an individual, not like anyone else."[68]

Monet at work in the large studio athis Giverny home

In 1899, he began painting the water lilies that would occupy him continuously for the next 20 years of his life, being his last and "most ambitious" sequence of paintings.[31][78]He had exhibited this first group of pictures of the garden, devoted primarily to his Japanese bridge, in 1900.[15]He returned to London—now residing at the prestigiousSavoy Hotel—in 1899 to produce a series that included 41 paintings ofWaterloo bridge,34 ofCharing Cross bridgeand 19 of theHouse of Parliament.[79]Monet's final journey would be to Venice, with Alice in 1908.[15]

Depictions of the water lilies, with alternating light and mirror-like reflections, became an integral part of his work.[80]By the mid-1910s Monet had achieved "a completely new, fluid, and somewhat audacious style of painting in which the water-lily pond became the point of departure for an almost abstract art".[81]Claude Roger-Marxnoted in a review of Monet's successful 1909 exhibition of the firstWater Liliesseries that he had "reached the ultimate degree of abstraction and imagination joined to the real".[82]This exhibition, entitledWaterlilies, a Series of Waterscape,consisted of 42 canvases, his "largest and most unified series to date".[15]He would ultimately make over 250 paintings of theWaterlilies.[50]

At his house, Monet met with artists, writers, intellectuals and politicians from France, England, Japan and the United States.[16]In the summer of 1887 he metJohn Singer Sargentwhose experimentation with figure painting out of doors intrigued him; the pair went on to frequently influence each other.[61]

Failing sight

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Monet in his garden at Giverny,c. 1917

Monet's second wife, Alice, died in 1911, and his oldest son, Jean, who had married Alice's daughter, Blanche, Monet's particular favourite, died in 1914.[83]Their deaths left Monet depressed, as Blanche cared for him.[15][84]It was during this time that Monet began to develop the first signs of possiblecataracts.[84]In 1913, Monet travelled to London to consult the German ophthalmologistRichard Liebreich.He was prescribed new glasses and rejected cataract surgery for the right eye.[85]The next year, Monet, encouraged by Clemenceau, made plans to construct a new, large studio that he could use to create a "decorative cycle of paintings devoted to the water garden".[15]

In the following years, his perception of colour suffered; his broad strokes were broader and his paintings were increasingly darker. To achieve his desired outcome, he began to label his tubes of paint, kept a strict order on his palette and wore a straw hat to negateglare.[85]He approached painting by formulating the ideas and features in his mind, taking the "motif in large masses" and transcribing them through memory and imagination. This was due to him being "insensitive" to the "finer shades of tonalities and colors seen close up".[86]

Monet's output decreased as he became withdrawn, although he did produce severalpanel paintingsfor theFrench Government,from 1914 to 1918 to great financial success and he would later create works for the state.[85][74][82]His work on the "cycle of paintings" mostly occurred around 1916 to 1921.[15]Cataract surgery was once again recommended, this time by Clemenceau.[85]Monet—who was apprehensive, followingHonoré DaumierandMary Cassatt's botched surgeries—stated that he would rather have poor sight and perhaps abandon painting than forego "a little of these things that I love".[85]In 1919, Monet began a series of landscape paintings, "in full force" although he was not pleased with the outcome.[82]By October the weather caused Monet to cease plein air painting and the next month he sold four of the elevenWater Liliespaintings, despite his then-reluctance to relinquish his work.[82]The series inspired praise from his peers; his later works were well received by dealers and collectors, and he received 200,000 francs from one collector.[82]

In 1922 a prescription ofmydriaticsprovided short-lived relief. He eventually underwentcataract surgeryin 1923. Persistentcyanopsiaandaphakicspectaclesproved to be a struggle. Now "able to see the real colours", he began to destroy canvases from his pre-operative period.[85]Upon receivingtintedZeisslenses, Monet was laudatory, although his left eye soon had to be entirely covered by a black lens. By 1925, his visual impairment was improved and he began to retouch some of his pre-operative works, with bluer water lilies than before.[87][85]

DuringWorld War I,in which his younger son, Michel, served, Monet painted aWeeping Willowseries as homage to the French fallen soldiers.[88]He became deeply dedicated to the decorations of his garden during the war.[74]

Method

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Édouard Manet,Claude Monet in Argenteuil,1874,Neue Pinakothek

Monet has been described as "the driving force behind Impressionism".[89]Crucial to the art of the Impressionist painters was the understanding of the effects of light on the local colour of objects, and the effects of the juxtaposition of colours with each other.[90]His free flowing style and use of colour have been described as "almost ethereal" and the "[epitome] of impressionist style";Impression, Sunriseis an example of the "fundamental" Impressionist principle of depicting only that which is purely visible.[24][91]Monet was fascinated with the effects of light, and paintingen plein air—he believed that his only "merit lies in having painted directly in front of nature, seeking to render my impressions of the most fleeting effects"[14][91]Wanting to "paint the air", he often combined modern life subjects in outdoor light.[27][92]

John Singer Sargent,Claude Monet Painting by the Edge of a Wood,1885,Tate Britain

Monet made light the central focus of his paintings. To capture its variations, he would sometimes complete a painting in one sitting, often without preparation.[93]He wished to demonstrate how light altered colour and perception of reality.[24]His interest in light and reflection began in the late 1860s and lasted throughout his career.[21]During his first time in London, he developed an admiration for the relationship between the artist and motifs—for what he deemed the "envelope".[79]He utilised pencil drawings to quickly note subjects and motifs for future reference.[15]

Monet's portrayal of landscapes emphasised industrial elements such as railways and factories; his early seascapes featured brooding nature depicted with muted colours and local residents.[28][43]Critic, and friend of Monet,Théodore Duretnoted, in 1874, that he was "little attracted by rustic scenes...He [felt] particularly drawn towards nature when it is embellished and towards urban scenes and for preference he paint[ed] flowery gardens, parks and groves."[31]When depicting figures and landscapes in tandem, Monet wished for the landscape to not be a mere backdrop and the figures not to be dominate the composition.[61]His dedication to such a portrayal of landscapes resulted in Monet reprimanding Renoir for defying it.[61]He often depicted the suburban and rural leisure activities of Paris and as a young artist experimented withstill lifes.[21][43]From the 1870s onwards, he gradually moved away from suburban and urban landscapes—when they were depicted it was to further his study of light.[50]Contemporary critics—and later academics—felt that with his choice of showcasing Belle Île, he had indicated a desire to move away from the modern culture of Impressionist paintings and instead towardsprimitivenature.[68]

After meeting Boudin, Monet dedicated himself to searching for new and improved methods of painterly expression. To this end, as a young man, he visited the Salon and familiarised himself with the works of older painters, and made friends with other young artists.[89]The five years that he spent atArgenteuil,spending much time on the River Seine in a little floating studio, were formative in his study of the effects of light and reflections. He began to think in terms of colours and shapes rather than scenes and objects. He used bright colours in dabs and dashes and squiggles of paint. Having rejected the academic teachings of Gleyre's studio, he freed himself from theory, saying "I like to paint as a bird sings."[94]Boudin, Daubigny, Jongkind, Courbet, and Corot were among Monet's influences and he would often work in accordance with developments inavant-gardeart.[22][14][61][95]

In 1877 a series of paintings at St-Lazare Station had Monet looking at smoke and steam and the way that they affected colour and visibility, being sometimesopaqueand sometimestranslucent.He was to further use this study in the painting of the effects of mist and rain on the landscape.[96]The study of the effects of atmosphere was to evolve into a number of series of paintings in which Monet repeatedly painted the same subject (such as his water lilies series)[97]in different lights, at different hours of the day, and through the changes of weather and season. This process began in the 1880s and continued until the end of his life in 1926.[citation needed]In his later career, Monet "transcended" the Impressionist style and begun to push the boundaries of art.[24][98]

Monet in his studio,c. 1920

Monet refined his palette in the 1870s, consciously minimising the use of darker tones and favouring pastel colours. This coincided with his softer approach, using smaller and more varied brush strokes. His palette would again undergo change in the 1880s, with more emphasis than before on harmony betweenwarm and coldhues.[15]Following his optical operation in 1923, Monet returned to his style from before a decade ago. He forwent garish colours or "coarse application" for emphasised colour schemes of blue and green.[85]Whilst suffering from cataracts, his paintings were more broad and abstract—from the late 1880s onwards, he had simplified his compositions and sought subjects which could offer broad colour and tone.[85][99]He increasingly used red and yellow tones, a trend that first started following his trip to Venice.[91]Monet often travelled alone at this time—from France to Normandy to London; to theRiveraandRouen—in search of new and more challenging subjects.[16][100]

Rouen Cathedral, the Façade in Sunlight,c. 1892–94,Clark Art Institute,Williamstown, Massachusetts

The stylistic change was likely a by-product of the disorder and not an intentional choice.[85]Monet would often work on large canvases due to the deterioration of his eyesight and by 1920 he admitted that he had grown too accustomed to broad painting to return to small canvases.[24][82]The influence of his cataracts on his output has been a topic of discussion among academics; Lane et al. (1997) argues the occurrence of a deterioration from the late 1860s onwards led to a diminishing of sharp lines.[91]Gardens were a focus throughout his art, becoming prominent in his later work, especially during the last decade of his life.[31][74]Daniel Wildensteinnoted a "seamless" continuity in his paintings that was "enriched by innovation".[100]

Monet in his studio,c. 1920

From the 1880s onwards—and particularly in the 1890s—Monet's series of paintings of specific subjects sought to document the different conditions of light and weather.[15]As light and weather changed throughout the day, he switched between canvases—sometimes working on as many as eight at one time—usually spending an hour on each.[15]In 1895, he exhibited 20 paintings ofRouen Cathedral,showcasing thefaçadein different conditions of light, weather and atmosphere.[15]The paintings do not focus on the grand Medieval building, but on the play of light and shade across its surface, transforming the solid masonry.[101]For this series, he experimented with creating his own frames.[102]

His first series exhibited was ofhaystacks,painted from different points of view and at different times of the day. Fifteen of the paintings were exhibited at theGalerie Durand-Ruelin 1891. In 1892 he produced twenty-six views ofRouen Cathedral.[90]Between 1883 and 1908, Monet travelled to theMediterranean,where he painted landmarks, landscapes, and seascapes, including a series of paintings inVenice.In London he painted four series:theHouses of Parliament, London,Charing Cross Bridge,Waterloo Bridge,andViews of Westminster Bridge.Helen Gardner writes:

Monet, with a scientific precision, has given us an unparalleled and unexcelled record of the passing of time as seen in the movement of light over identical forms.[103]

Water lilies

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Main article:Water Lilies (Monet series)

Following his return from London, Monet painted mostly from nature, in his own garden; its water lilies, its pond and its bridge. From 22 November to 15 December 1900, another exhibition dedicated to him was held at the Durand-Ruel gallery, with around ten versions of theWater Liliesexhibited. This same exhibition was organized in February 1901 in New York City, where it was met with great success.[34]

In 1901, Monet enlarged the pond of his home by buying a meadow located on the other side of the Ru, the local watercourse. He then divided his time between work on nature and work in his studio.[105]

The canvases dedicated to the water lilies evolved with the changes made to his garden. In addition, around 1905, Monet gradually modified his aesthetics by abandoning the perimeter of the body of water and therefore modifying perspective. He also changed the shape and size of his canvases by moving from rectangular stretchers to square and then circular stretchers.[34]

These canvases were created with great difficulty: Monet spent a significant amount of time reworking them in order to find the perfect effects and impressions. When he deemed them unsuccessful he did not hesitate to destroy them. He continually postponed the Durand-Ruel exhibition until he was satisfied with the works. After several postponements dating back to 1906, the exhibition titledLes Nymphéasended up opening on 6 May 1909. Comprising forty-eight paintings dating from 1903 to 1908, representing a series of landscapes and water lily scenes, this exhibition was once again a success.[34]

Death

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Monet family grave at Giverny

Monet died oflung canceron 5 December 1926 at the age of 86 and is buried in the Giverny church cemetery. Monet had insisted that the occasion be simple; thus, only about fifty people attended the ceremony.[106]At his funeral, Clemenceau removed the black cloth draped over the coffin, stating: "No black for Monet!" and replaced it with a flower-patterned cloth.[107]At the time of his death,Waterlilieswas "technically unfinished".[50]

Monet's home, garden, and water lily pond were bequeathed by Michel to the French Academy of Fine Arts (part of theInstitut de France) in 1966. Through theFondation Claude Monet,the house and gardens were opened for visits in 1980, following restoration.[108]In addition to souvenirs of Monet and other objects of his life, the house contains his collection ofJapanese woodcut prints,which had a pronounced influence on his art.[109]The house and garden, along with the Museum of Impressionism, are major attractions in Giverny, which hosts tourists from all over the world.


Legacy

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Speaking of Monet's body of work, Wildenstein said that it is "so extensive that its very ambition and diversity challenges our understanding of its importance".[100]His paintings produced at Giverny and under the influence of cataracts have been said to create a link between Impressionism andtwentieth-century artand modernabstract art,respectively.[85][100]His later works were a "major" inspiration toObjective abstraction.[110]Ellsworth Kelly,following a formative experience at Giverny, paid homage to Monet's works created there withTableau Vert(1952).[98]Monet has been called an "intermediary" between tradition andmodernism—his work has been examined in relation topostmodernism—and was an influence to Bazille, Sisley, Renoir and Pissarro.[21][98]Monet is now the most famous of the Impressionists; as a result of his contributions to the movement, he "exerted a huge influence on late 19th-century art".[16][111]

Water Lilieson display in theMusée de l'Orangeriein Paris

In May 1927, 27 panel paintings were displayed in theMusée de l'Orangerie,following lengthy negotiations with the French government.[82]Due to his later works being ignored by artists, art historians, critics and the public few attended the showing.[98]In the 1950s, Monet's later works were "rediscovered" by theAbstract Expressionists,and those adjacent likeClement Greenberg,who used a similar canvases[clarification needed]and held a disinterest in the blunt and ideological art of the war.[98][24]A 1952 essay byAndré Massonhelped change the perception of the paintings and inspire appreciation that begin to take shape in 1956–1957.[98]The next year, a fire in theMuseum of Modern Artwould see theWater Liliespaintings acquired by them burn.[98]The large scale nature of Monet's later paintings proved to be difficult for some museums, which resulted in them altering the framing.[98]

In 1978,Monet's gardenin Giverny—which had grown decrepit over fifty years—was restored and opened to the public.[73]In 2004,London, the Parliament, Effects of Sun in the Fog(Londres, le Parlement, trouée de soleil dans le brouillard;1904), sold for US$20.1 million.[112]In 2006, the journalProceedings of the Royal Societypublished a paper providing evidence that these were painted in situ atSt Thomas' Hospitalover the riverThames.[113]In 1981,Ronald Pickvancenoted that Monet's works after 1880 were increasingly receiving scholarly attention.[114]

Falaises près de Dieppe(Cliffs Near Dieppe) has been stolen on two occasions: once in 1998 (in which the museum's curator was convicted of the theft and jailed for five years and two months along with two accomplices) and most recently in August 2007.[115]It was recovered in June 2008.[116]

On 14 November 2001, aGoogle Doodlewas made for Claude Monet's 161st birthday, depicting the Google logo in Monet's signature style.[117]It was the first Google Doodle made for someone's birthday.

Monet'sLe Pont du chemin de fer à Argenteuil,an 1873 painting of arailway bridgespanning theSeinenear Paris, was bought by an anonymous telephone bidder for a record $41.4 million atChristie'sauction in New York on 6 May 2008. The previous record for his painting stood at $36.5 million.[118]A few weeks later,Le bassin aux nymphéas(from the water lilies series) sold at Christie's 24 June 2008 auction in London[119]for £40,921,250 ($80,451,178), nearly doubling the record for the artist.[120]This purchase represented one of the top 20highest prices paid for a paintingat the time.

In October 2013, Monet's paintingsL'Eglise de VétheuilandLe Bassin aux Nympheasbecame subjects of a legal case in New York against New York-based Vilma Bautista, one-time aide toImelda Marcos,wife of dictatorFerdinand Marcos,[121]after she soldLe Bassin aux Nympheasfor $32 million to a Swiss buyer. The said Monet paintings, along with two others, were acquired by Imelda during her husband's presidency and allegedly bought using the nation's funds. Bautista's lawyer claimed that the aide sold the painting for Imelda but did not have a chance to give her the money. The Philippine government seeks the return of the painting.[121]Le Bassin aux Nympheas,also known asJapanese Footbridge over the Water-Lily Pond at Giverny,is part of Monet's famed Water Lilies series.

Nazi looting

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Under the Nazi regime, both in Germany from 1933 and in German-occupied countries until 1945, Jewish art collectors of Monet were looted by Nazis and their agents. Several of the stolen artworks have been returned to their rightful owners, while others have been the object of court battles. In 2014, during the spectacular discovery of a hidden trove of art in Munich, a Monet that had belonged to a Jewish retail magnate was found in the suitcase ofCornelius Gurlitt,the son of one ofHitler'sofficial art dealers of looted art,Hildebrand Gurlitt.[122][123]

Examples of Nazi-looted Monet works include:

  • La Seine à Asnières/Les Péniches sur la Seine,formerly owned by Mrs. Fernand Halphen, taken by agents of the German Embassy in Paris on 10 July 1940.[124]
  • Le Repos Dans Le Jardin Argenteuil,previously owned by Henry and Maria Newman, stolen from a Berlin bank vault, settlement with the Metropolitan Museum of Art.[125]
  • Nymphéas,stolen by Nazis in 1940 fromPaul Rosenberg.[126]
  • Au Parc Monceau,previously owned byLudwig Kainer,whose vast collection was looted by the Nazis.[127]
  • Haystacks at Givernybelonged toRené Gimpel,a French Jewish art dealer killed in a Nazi concentration camp.[128][129]

Monet'sLe Palais Ducal,and his 1880 work,Poppy Field near Vétheuil, formerly in the collection ofMax Emden,have been the object of restitution claims.[130][131]"La Mare, Snow Effect" ( "La Mare, effect de neige" ) was the object of a settlement with the heirs ofRichard Semmel.[132]

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^Khan et al. 2010conversely describes the exile as forceful.

References

edit
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  2. ^House, John, et al.:Monet in the 20th century,page 2, Yale University Press, 1998.
  3. ^abP. TuckerClaude Monet: Life and Art,p. 5
  4. ^Patin, Sylvie."Monet: un œil... mais, bon Dieu, quel œil!"Découvertes Gallimard,Number 131, série Arts. p. 14
  5. ^Levine 1994,chapter 6.
  6. ^Butler 2008,p. 202.
  7. ^The New Encyclopaedia Britannica.Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1 January 1974. p. 347.ISBN978-0-85229-290-7.
  8. ^Tinterow & Loyrette 1994,pp. 417.
  9. ^"Claude Monet Biography".biography.com.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2017.Retrieved7 February2017.
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  11. ^abFourny-Dargère, Sophie, and Claude Monet (1992).Monet.New York: Konecky and Konecky. p. 30.ISBN9781568522487.
  12. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstOxford Art (31 October 2011)."Monet, Claude".Oxford Art Online.doi:10.1093/benz/9780199773787.article.B00124536.ISBN978-0-19-989991-3.Retrieved24 May2021.
  13. ^abcdGreenberg, Susan D. (2001)."The Face of Impressionism in 1870: Claude Monet's" Camille on the Beach at Trouville "".Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin:66–73.ISSN0084-3539.JSTOR40514596.Archivedfrom the original on 2 June 2021.Retrieved1 June2021.
  14. ^abcdefgLevine 1986,pp. 65–75.
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  16. ^abcdefghBrettell, Hayes Tucker & Henderson Lee 2009,pp. 63.
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Sources

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