Monk

For other uses, seeMonk (disambiguation)andMonks (disambiguation).

Amonk(/mʌŋk/;fromGreek:μοναχός,monachos,"single, solitary" viaLatinmonachus)is amanwho is a member of a religious order and lives in amonastery.A monk usually lives his life inprayerandcontemplation.The concept is ancient and can be seen in many religions and in philosophy across numerous cultures.

Portrait depicting aCarthusianmonk in the Roman Catholic Church (1446)

Buddhist monks collecting alms

The Greek word for "monk" may be applied to men or women. In English, however, "monk" is applied mainly to men, whilenunis typically used for female monastics.

Although the termmonachosis ofChristianorigin, in the English languagemonktends to be used loosely also for both male and female ascetics from other religious or philosophical backgrounds.However, being generic, it is not interchangeable with terms that denote particular kinds of monk, such ascenobite,hermit,anchorite,hesychast,or solitary.

Traditions ofChristian monasticismexist in major Christian denominations, withreligious ordersbeing present in Catholicism, Lutheranism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Reformed Christianity (Calvinism), Anglicanism and Methodism. Indian religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, also have monastic traditions as well.

Buddhism

Main article:Bhikkhu

Buddhist monks inThailand

InTheravadaBuddhism,bhikkhuis the term for monk. Their disciplinary code is called thepatimokkha,which is part of the largerVinaya.They live lives ofmendicancy,and go on a morning almsround (Pali:pindapata) every day. The local people give food for the monks to eat, though the monks are not permitted to positively ask for anything. The monks live in monasteries, and have an important function in traditional Asian society. Young boys can be ordained assamaneras.Both bhikkhus and samaneras eat only in the morning, and are not supposed to lead a luxurious life. Their rules forbid the use of money, although this rule is nowadays not kept by all monks. The monks are part of theSangha,the third of theTriple GemofBuddha,Dhamma,Sangha.

InMahayanaBuddhism, the term 'Sangha' strictly speaking refers to those who have achieved certain levels of understanding. They are therefore called 'community of the excellent ones' (Standard Tibetan:mchog kyi tshogs); however, these in turn need not be monks (i.e., hold suchvows). Several Mahayana orders accept female practitioners as monks, instead of using the normal title of "nun", and they are considered equal to male ascetics in all respects.

Monk resting inLadakh

TheBhikkhusare only allowed 4 items(other than their robes):a razor, a sewing needle, an alms bowl and a water strainer.

InVajrayanaBuddhism, monkhood is part of the system of 'vows of individual liberation'; these vows are taken in order to develop one's own personal ethical discipline. The monks and nuns form the (ordinary)sangha.As for the Vajrayana vows of individual liberation, there are four steps: A lay person may take the 5 vows called 'approaching virtue' (in Tibetan 'genyen' <dge snyan>). The next step is to enter the monastic way of life (Tib.rabjung) which includes wearing monk's or nun'srobes.After that, one can become a 'novice' (Palisamanera,Tib.getshül); the last and final step is to take all vows of the 'fully ordained monk' (gelong). This term 'gelong' (Tib. <dge long>, in the female formgelongma) is the translation of Skt.bikshu(for womenbikshuni) which is the equivalent of the Pali termbhikkhuni;bhikkhuis the word used in Theravada Buddhism (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand).

Buddhist monks performing ceremony in Hangzhou, China

ChineseBuddhist monks have been traditionally and stereotypically linked with the practice of theChinese martial artsorKung fu,and monks are frequently important characters inmartial arts films.This association is focused around theShaolin Monastery.The Buddhist monkBodhidharma,traditionally credited as the founder ofZenBuddhism in China, is also claimed to have introducedKalaripayattu(which later evolved into Kung Fu) to the country. This latter claim has however been a source of much controversy (seeBodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection). One more feature about the Chinese Buddhist monks is that they practice the burning marks on their scalp, finger or part of the skin on their anterior side of the forearm with incense as a sign of ordination.

InThailandandBurma,it is common for boys to spend some time living as a monk in a monastery. Most stay for only a few years and then leave, but a number continue on in the ascetic life for the rest of their lives.

InMongoliaduring the 1920s, there were about 110,000 monks, including children, who made up about one-third of the male population,many of whom were killed in the purges ofChoibalsan.

Christianity

Western Christianity

Main article:Christian monasticism § Western Christian orders in the modern era

Catholicism

Investiture of Saint Benedict, scene from the fresco cycle on the life of St. Benedict in Monte Oliveto Maggiore

WithinCatholicism,a monk is a member of areligious orderwho lives a communal life in amonasteryunder a monastic rule of life.Benedict of Nursia,(480-543 or 547 AD) is considered to be the originator of western monasticism. Benedict'srule,is the foundation for theBenedictinesand all of its reform groups such as theCisterciansand theTrappists.Benedict founded the greatMonte Cassinoin 529.

ThecloistersofMoissac Abbeyin France

Benedict pointed out in his rule stability, conversion of life and obedience as promises.Obedience calls for the monk to obey Christ, as represented by the superior person of the monastery, which is anabbotor aprior.Conversion of life means, generally, that the monk converts himself to the way of a monk, which is death to self and to the world and life to God and to his work. A monk is to be an instrument of God's work. Stability entails that the monk commit himself to the monastery for the remainder of his life, and so, upon death, will be buried at its cemetery. The vow of stability(stabilitas loci)is unique to Benedictines.

Fresco of Cistercian monks at the murals the murals of the Chapter house of Osek abbey inBohemia

Thesolemn vowsin other religious orders were eventually established as vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. Poverty requires that they renounce any ownership of property or assets, except for items that were allowed to them by their superior (such as ahabit,books etc.), and to live meekly, sharing whatever they might have with the poor. Chastity requires that since they were willing to dedicate their lives to God, they sacrificed the love between men and women and stay either virginal or chaste.

To become a monk, one first must be accepted by a community as apostulant.During the time of postulancy the man lives at the monastery to test his vocation, to get to know the community and the community to get to know him. If the postulant and the community agree that the postulant should become anovice,he is received as such. At this time he is usually given the habit and areligious name.Both the community and the novice evaluate further whether the man is called to become a monk and he begins to participate more fully in the life of the community. As a postulant andnovice,the man is free to leave the community at any time or the institute can dismiss him.Following the novitiate, which must last at least one canonical year (but not longer than two years) in the community of the novitiatethe novice may profess first vows, if he is accepted to do so. After a few years (usually three) the monk makessolemn vows,which are binding for life.

Monastic cell in the La Verne Charterhouse, now resettled by theMonastic Family of Bethlehem, of the Assumption of the Virgin and of Saint Bruno

The monastic life generally consists of prayer in the form of theLiturgy of the Hours,also known as the Divine Office, reading of the divine scriptures (lectio divina) and labor. Among most religious orders, monks live in simple, austere rooms calledcellsand come together daily to celebrate and to recite the Liturgy of the Hours and theMass.Usually, the monks take their meals together in therefectory.Many communities have a period of silence lasting from evening until the next morning and some others restrict talking to only when it is necessary for the monks to perform their work and during weekly recreation.

Monks who have been or will beordainedintoHoly Ordersaspriestsordeaconswere traditionally referred to as "choir monks". Those monks who are not ordained into Holy Orders are referred to aslay brothers.In most monastic communities today, little distinction exists between the lay brothers and the choir monks, as they all have the obligation to celebrate the entire Divine Office daily inchoir.However, historically, the roles of the two groups of monks within the monastery differed. The work of the choir monks was considered to be prayer, chanting the hours of the Divine Office, whereas the lay brothers provided for the material needs of the community by growing food, preparing meals, maintaining the monastery and the grounds. This distinction arose historically because generally those monks who could readLatintypically became choir monks, while those monks who were illiterate or could not read Latin became lay brothers. The lay brothers would instead recite at least some of the liturgical hours prayers such as theLord's Prayeror theHail Mary.Since theSecond Vatican Council,the distinction between choir monks and lay brothers has been deemphasized, as the council allowed the Liturgy of the Hours to be celebrated in the vernacular language, effectively opening participation to all of the monks.

Within western monasticism, it is important to differentiate between monks andfriars.Monks generally live a contemplative life of prayer confined within a monastery while friars usually engage in an active ministry of service to the outside community. The monastic orders include allBenedictines(theOrder of Saint Benedictand its later reforms including theCisterciansand theTrappists) and theCarthusians,who live according to their own statutes. Orders of friars include themendicant orders(primarilyOrder of Friars Minor,Capuchins,Dominicans,Carmelites,andAugustinians). Although thecanons regular(such as theNorbertines) and theclerics regular(such as theJesuits) live in community, they are neither monks nor friars as they are characterized by theirclerical stateand not by any monastic vows.

Lutheranism

Further:Lutheran religious orders

Loccum Abbeycontinued as a Lutheran monastery since the 16th century A.D.

Loccum AbbeyandAmelungsborn Abbeyhave the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries; after the Reformation, many monasteries andconventswere received into the Lutheran Church and continued religious life, existing to this day.

Since the 19th and 20th century, there has been a renewal in the monastic life among Lutheranism. Lutheran religious orders in the Franciscan, Benedictine and other traditions exist, with some Lutheran monasteries havingthird ordersand acceptingoblates.

In American Lutheran traditions, "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ" was established at St. Augustine's House inOxford, Michigan,in 1958 when some other men joined FatherArthur Kreinhederin observing the monastic life and offices of prayer. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has always remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur.During the 35 years of its existence over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989 only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there was 2 permanent professed members and 2 long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden (Östanbäck monastery) and in Germany (Priory of St. Wigbert).

There is also theOrder of Lutheran Franciscans,a religious community of friars and sisters within the tradition of theEvangelical Lutheran Church in America.

Anglicanism

Further information:Anglican religious order

Monastic life inEnglandcame to an abrupt end whenKing Henry VIIIbroke from theCatholic Churchand made himself theheadof theChurch of England.He initiated theDissolution of the Monasteries,during which all of themonasterieswithinEnglandwere destroyed. A large number of monks were executed. Others fled to continentalEuropeanmonasteries where they were able to continue their monastic life.

Shortly after the beginning of theAnglo-Catholic Movementin the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. In the 1840s, the then Anglican priest and future Catholic CardinalJohn Henry Newmanestablished a community of men atLittlemorenearOxford.From then on, there have been established many communities of monks,friarsand other religious communities for men in theAnglican Communion.There are AnglicanBenedictines,Franciscans,Cistercians,and in theEpiscopal Churchin the United States,Dominicans.There are also uniquely Anglican monastic orders such as theSociety of Saint John the Evangelistand theCommunity of the ResurrectionatMirfield.

Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life". Anglican monks recite the Divine Office in choir daily, either the full eight services of theBreviaryor the four offices found in theBook of Common Prayerand celebrate theEucharistdaily. Many orders take on external works such as service to the poor, giving religious retreats, or other active ministries within their immediate communities. Like Catholic monks, Anglican monks also take the monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.

In the early 20th century when theOxford Movementwas at its height, the Anglican Communion had hundredsof orders and communities and thousands of religious followers. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery composed of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct.

There are however, still several thousand Anglican monks working today in approximately 200 communities around the world. The most growth has been in theMelanesiancountries of theSolomon Islands,VanuatuandPapua New Guinea.TheMelanesian Brotherhood,founded atTabalia,Guadalcanal,in 1925 byIni Kopuria,is now the largest Anglican community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, thePhilippinesand theUnited Kingdom.

Methodism

TheSaint Brigid of Kildare Monasteryis adouble monasteryof theUnited Methodist Churchrooted in the Benedictine tradition, being located inCollegeville, Minnesota.Besides monastic orders, theOrder of Saint Lukeis a dispersed religious order within Methodism, though beingecumenical,it accepts believers of other Christian denominations.

Reformed Christianity

The Emmanuel Sisters is aconventof thePresbyterian Church in Cameroonthat was founded by Magdaline Marie Handy.These nuns are engaged in prayer, teaching, and healthcare.

Eastern Christianity

Eastern Orthodox

Monastery of St. DionysiusonMount Athos

Orthodox monk on his way toMount Athos

InEastern Orthodoxy,monasticism holds a very special and important place: "Angels are a light for monks, monks are a light for laymen" (St. John Klimakos). Eastern Orthodox monastics separate themselves from theworldin order to pray unceasingly for the world. They do not, in general, have as their primary purpose the running of social services, but instead are concerned with attainingtheosis,or union with God. However, care for the poor and needy has always been an obligation of monasticism,so not all monasteries are "cloistered". The level of contact will vary from community to community. Hermits, on the other hand, have little or no contact with the outside world.

Eastern Orthodox monasticism does not havereligious ordersas are found in the West, nor do they have Rules in the same sense as theRule of St. Benedict.Rather, Eastern monastics study and draw inspiration from the writings of theDesert Fathersas well as otherChurch Fathers;probably the most influential of which are theGreater AsketikonandLesser Asketikonof St. Basil the Great and thePhilokalia,which was compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth.Hesychasmis of primary importance in the ascetical theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

General view ofHoly Trinity-Makaryev Monastery,on theVolga RiverinNizhny Novgorod Oblast,Russia

Monk nearSaint Petersburg,Soviet Union (c. 1931) by a traveler,DeCou, Branson

Most communities are self-supporting, and the monastic's daily life is usually divided into three parts: (a) communal worship in thecatholicon(the monastery's main church); (b) hard manual labour; and (c) private prayer, spiritual study, and rest when necessary. Meals are usually taken in common in a sizable dining hall known as atrapeza(refectory), at elongatedrefectory tables.Food is usually simple and is eaten in silence while one of the brethren reads aloud from the spiritual writings of theHoly Fathers.The monastic lifestyle takes a great deal of serious commitment. Within the cenobitic community, all monks conform to a common way of living based on the traditions of that particular monastery. In struggling to attain this conformity, the monastic comes to realize his own shortcomings and is guided by hisspiritual fatherin how to deal honestly with them. For this same reason,bishopsare almost always chosen from the ranks of monks.

Eastern monasticism is found in three distinct forms:anchoritic(a solitary living in isolation),cenobitic(a community living and worshiping together under the direct rule of an abbot or abbess), and the "middle way" between the two, known as theskete(a community of individuals living separately but in close proximity to one another, who come together only on Sundays and feast days, working and praying the rest of the time in solitude, but under the direction of an elder). One normally enters a cenobitic community first, and only after testing and spiritual growth would one go on to the skete or, for the most advanced, become a solitary anchorite. However, one is not necessarily expected to join a skete or become a solitary; most monastics remain in the cenobium the whole of their lives.

In general, Eastern Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with the outside world, including their own families. The purpose of the monastic life is union with God, the means is through leaving the world (i.e., the life of the passions). After tonsure, Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns are never permitted to cut their hair. The hair of the head and the beard remain uncut as a symbol of the vows they have taken, reminiscent of theNazaritesfrom theOld Testament.Thetonsureof monks is the token of a consecrated life, and symbolizes the cutting off of their self-will.

Degrees

Main article:Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism

The Great Schema worn by Orthodox monks and nuns of the most advanced degree

The process of becoming a monk is intentionally slow, as thevowstaken are considered to entail a lifelong commitment to God, and are not to be entered into lightly. In Eastern Orthodox monasticism, after the completion of the novitiate there are three ranks of monasticism. There is only onemonastic habitin the Eastern Orthodox Church (with certain slight regional variations), and it is the same for both monks and nuns. Each successive grade is given a portion of the habit, the full habit being worn only by those in the highest grade, known for that reason as the "Great Schema", or "Great Habit".

The various profession rites are normally performed by the Abbot, but if the abbot has not been ordained a priest, or if the monastic community is a convent, ahieromonkwill perform the service. The abbot or hieromonk who performs a tonsure must be of at least the rank he is tonsuring into. In other words, only a hieromonk who has been tonsured into the Great Schema may himself tonsure a Schemamonk. A bishop, however, may tonsure into any rank, regardless of his own.

Novice(Church Slavonic:Poslushnik), lit. "one under obedience" — Those wishing to join a monastery begin their lives as novices. After coming to the monastery and living as a guest for not less than three days, the revered abbot or abbess may bless the candidate to become a novice. There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice, he or she simply receives permission to wear the clothing of a novice. In the Eastern monastic tradition, novices may or may not dress in the blackinner cassock(Greek:Anterion,Eisorasson;Church Slavonic:Podriasnik) and wear the soft monastic hat (Greek:Skoufos,Church Slavonic:Skufia), depending on the tradition of the local community, and in accordance to the abbot's directives. The inner-cassock and theskoufosare the first part of the Eastern Orthodox monastic habit. In some communities, the novice also wears the leather belt. He is also given aprayer ropeand instructed in the use of theJesus Prayer.If a novice chooses to leave during the period of the novitiate, no penalty is incurred. He may also be asked to leave at any time if his behaviour does not conform to the monastic life, or if the superior discerns that he is not called to monasticism. When the abbot or abbess deems the novice ready, he is asked if he wishes to join the monastery. Some, out of humility, will choose to remain novices all their lives. Every stage of the monastic life must be entered into voluntarily.

Rassophore(Church Slavonic:Ryassofor), lit. "Robe-bearer" — If the novice continues on to become a monk, he is clothed in the first degree of monasticism at a formal service known as theTonsure.Although there are no formalvowsmade at this point, the candidate is normally required to affirm his commitment to persevere in the monastic life. The abbot will then perform the tonsure, cutting a small amount of hair from four spots on the head, forming a cross. He is then given the outer cassock (Greek:Rasson,Exorasson,orMandorasson;Church Slavonic:Ryassa)—an outer robe with wide sleeves, something like thecowlused in the West, but without a hood—from which the name ofRassophorederives. He is also given a brimless hat with a veil, known as aklobuk,and a leather belt is fastened around his waist. His habit is usually black (an archaic synonym for "monk" wasRussian:чернец,romanized:chernets,lit. 'black one'; the female equivalent isRussian:черница,romanized:chernitsa), signifying that he is now dead to the world, and he receives a newmonastic name.Although the Rassophore does not make formal vows, he is still morally obligated to continue in the monastic estate for the rest of his life. Some will remain Rassophores permanently, without going on to the higher degrees.

Stavrophore(Church Slavonic:Krestonosets), lit. "Cross-bearer" —The next level for Eastern monastics takes place some years after the first tonsure when the abbot feels the monk has reached an appropriate level of discipline, dedication, and humility. This degree is also known as theLittle Schema,and is considered to be a "betrothal" to the Great Schema. At this stage, the monk makes formal vows of stability,chastity, obedience and poverty.Then he is tonsured and clothed in the habit, which in addition to that worn by the Rassophore, includes theparamandyas(Church Slavonic:paraman), a piece of square cloth worn on the back, embroidered with the instruments of thePassion(see picture above), and connected by ties to a wooden cross worn over the heart. The paramandyas represents the yoke of Christ. Because of this addition he is now calledStavrophore,orCross-bearer.He is also given a wooden hand cross (or "profession cross" ), which he should keep in hisicon corner,and a beeswax candle, symbolic of monastic vigilance the sacrificing of himself for God. He will be buried holding the cross, and the candle will be burned at his funeral. In the Slavic practice, the Stavrophore also wears the monasticmantle.The rasson (outer robe) worn by the Stavrophore is more ample than that worn by the Rassophore. The abbot increases the Stavrophore monk's prayer rule, allows a more strict personal ascetic practice, and gives the monk more responsibility.

Great Schema(Greek:Megaloschemos,Church Slavonic:Skhimnik)—Monks whose abbot feels they have reached a high level of spiritual excellence reach the final stage, called theGreat Schema.The tonsure of a Schemamonk follows the same format as the Stavrophore, and he makes the same vows and is tonsured in the same manner. But in addition to all the garments worn by the Stavrophore, he is given theAnalavos(Church Slavonic:Analav) which is the article of monastic vesture emblematic of the Great Schema. For this reason, the analavos itself is sometimes called the "Great Schema". The analavos comes down in the front and the back, somewhat like thescapularin Western monasticism, although the two garments are probably not related. It is often intricately embroidered with the instruments of the Passion and theTrisagion(the angelic hymn). The Greek form does not have a hood, the Slavic form has a hood and lappets on the shoulders, so that the garment forms a large cross covering the monk's shoulders, chest, and back. Another piece added is thePolystavrionor "Many Crosses", which consists of a cord with a number of small crosses plaited into it. The polystavrion forms a yoke around the monk and serves to hold the analavos in place, and reminds the monastic that he is bound to Christ and that his arms are no longer fit for worldly activities, but that he must labor only for theKingdom of Heaven.Among the Greeks, the mantle is added at this stage. The paramandyas of the Megaloschemos is larger than that of the Stavrophore, and if he wears the klobuk, it is of a distinctive thimble shape, called akoukoulion,the veil of which is usually embroidered with crosses. In some monastic traditions the Great Schema is only given to monks and nuns on their death bed, while in others they may be elevated after as little as 25 years of service.

Eastern Orthodox monks are addressed as "father" even if they are not priests; but when conversing among themselves, monks will often address one another as "Brother". Novices are always referred to as "Brother". Among the Greeks, old monks are often calledGheronda,or "Elder", out of respect for their dedication. In the Slavic tradition, the title of Elder (Church Slavonic:Starets) is normally reserved for those who are of an advanced spiritual life, and who serve as guides to others.

For the Eastern Orthodox, "mother" is the correct term for nuns who have been tonsured Stavrophore or higher. Novices and Rassophores are addressed as "sister". Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also calledmonachai(the feminine plural ofmonachos), and their community is likewise called a monastery.

Many (but not all) Eastern Orthodoxseminariesare attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation forordinationwith participation in the community's life of prayer, and hopefully benefiting from the example and wise counsel of the monks. Bishops are required by thesacred canonsof the Eastern Orthodox Church to be chosen from among the monastic clergy. The requirement is specifically that they be monastics, not simply celibate (seeclerical celibacy). Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are calledhieromonks(priest-monks); monks who have been ordained to thediaconateare calledhierodeacons(deacon-monks). A Schemamonk who is a priest is called a Hieroschemamonk. Most monks are not ordained; a community will normally only present as many candidates for ordination to the bishop as the liturgical needs of the community require.

Hinduism

Main article:Matha

Main article:Dashanami Sampradaya

Hinduism has many monastic orders, including theDashanami Sampradaya(lit. 'Tradition of Ten Names') orders established byAdi Shankaraas well asVaishnavaorders.

Vaishnava

Main article:International Society for Krishna Consciousness

Madhvaacharya (Madhvacharya), theDwaitaphilosopher, establishedashta matha(Eight Monasteries). He appointed a monk (calledswamijiorswamigaluin local parlance) for eachmathaor monastery who has the right to worship Madhvacharya'smurtiof LordKrishnaby rotation. Each matha's swamiji gets a chance to worship after fourteen years. This ritual is calledParyayaand has been used also outside hissampradaya,e.g. inGaudiya VaisnavaRadharamanatempleinVrindavan.

Similar in appearance to Buddhist monks,brahmacarimonks from theInternational Society for Krishna Consciousness(ISKCON), orHare Krishnasas they are popularly known, are the best knownVaishnavamonks outside India. They are a common sight in many places around the world. Their appearance—simplesaffrondhoti,shaved head withsikha,Tulasineckbeads andtilakamarkings—and social customs (sadhana) date back many thousands of years to theVedicera with itsvarnasramasociety. This social scheme includes both monastic and lay stages meant for various persons in various stages of life according to their characteristics (guna) and work (karma).

ISKCON started as a predominantly monastic group but nowadays the majority of members live as lay persons. Many of them, however, spent some time as monks. New persons joining ISKCON as full-time members (living in its centers) first undergo a three-monthBhaktatraining, which includes learning the basics ofbrahmacari(monastic) life. After that they can decide if they prefer to continue as monks or as marriedGrihasthas.

Brahmacari older than 50 years (per ISKCON rule) can becomesannyasi.Sannyasa,a life of full dedication to spiritual pursuits, is the highest stage of life in thevarnasramasociety. It is permanent and one cannot give it up. A Sannyasi is given the titleSwami.Older grihastha with grown-up children are traditionally expected to acceptvanaprastha(celibate retired) life.

The role of monastic orders inIndianand now alsoWesternsociety has to some extent been adapted over the years in accordance with ever-changing social structures.

Jainism

Main article:Jain monasticism

One of the most intense forms of Asceticism can be found inJainism,one of the world's oldest religions. Jainism encourages fasting, yoga practices, meditation in difficult postures, and other austerities.According to Jains, one's highest goal should be attainingNirvanaorMoksha(i.e., liberation fromsamsara,the cycle of birth and rebirth). For this, a soul has to be without attachment or self-indulgence. This can be achieved only by the monks and nuns who take five great vows: of non-violence, of truth, of non-stealing, of non-possession and of celibacy.

Acharya Vidyasagar,a possessionless and detachedDigambaraJain monk

Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back to VardhamanMahavira,the twenty-fourth "fordmaker" orTirthankara.TheAcaranga Sutra,or Book of Good Conduct, is a sacred book within Jainism that discusses the ascetic code of conduct. Other texts that provide insight into conduct of ascetics includeYogashastraby AcharyaHemachandraand Niyamasara by AcharyaKundakunda.Other illustrious Jain works on ascetic conduct areOghanijjutti, Pindanijjutti, Cheda Sutta, and Nisiha Suttafee. Full Jain monk in eitherŚvetāmbaraorDigambaratraditioncan belong to one of these ranks:

• Acharya:leader of the order
• Upadhyaya: a learned monk, who both teaches and studies himself
• Muni: an ordinary monk

These three are mentioned is the three lines of theNamokar Mantra.In theDigambaratradition, a junior monk can be a:

• Ailak: they use one piece of cloth
• Kshullak:they may use two pieces of cloth

TheŚvetāmbara Terapanthisect has a new rank of junior monks who are called samana. The nuns are called Aryikas inDigambartradition and Sadhvi in theŚvetāmbaratradition.

Ascetic vows

FiveMahavratasof Jain ascetics

Per the Jain vows, the monks and nuns renounce all relations and possessions. Jain ascetics practice complete non-violence.Ahimsais the first and foremost vow of a Jain ascetic. They do not hurt any living being, be it an insect or a human. They carry a special broom to sweep away any insects that may cross their path. Some Jain monks wear a cloth over the mouth to prevent accidental harm to airborne germs and insects. They also do not use electricity as it involves violence. Furthermore, they do not use any devices or machines.

As they are without possession and attachment, they travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than two months to prevent themselves from becoming attached to any location. However, during four months of monsoon (rainy season) known as chaturmaas, they continue to stay in a single place to avoid killing the life forms that thrive during the rains. Jain monks and nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a person of opposite sex.

Dietary practices

Jain ascetics follow a strict vegetarian diet without root vegetables.Śvetāmbaramonks do not cook food but solicit alms from householders.Digambaramonks have only a single meal a day. Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of mind and body and offers the food of his own volition and in the prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk remains standing and eats only a measured amount. Fasting (i.e., abstinence from food and sometimes water) is a routine feature of Jain asceticism. Fasts last for a day or longer, up to a month. Some monks avoid (or limit) medicine or hospitalization due to their careful attention to body.

Austerities and other daily practices

White-clothed Acharya Kalaka

Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture near river banks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest. Such austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental limits of the individual ascetic. Jain ascetics are (almost) completely without possessions. Some Jains (Śvetāmbara monks and nuns) own only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment) and a bowl used for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and carry nothing with them except a soft broom made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) and eat from their hands. They sleep on the floor without blankets and sit on special wooden platforms.

Every day is spent either in study of scriptures or meditation or teaching to lay people. They stand aloof from worldly matters. Many Jain ascetics take a final vow of Santhara orSallekhana(i.e., a peaceful and detached death where medicines, food, and water are abandoned). This is done when death is imminent or when a monk feels that he is unable to adhere to his vows on account of advanced age or terminal disease.

Quotes on ascetic practices from theĀcārāṅga SūtraasHermann Jacobitranslated it:

A monk or a nun wandering from village to village should look forward for four cubits, and seeing animals they should move on by walking on his toes or heels or the sides of his feet. If there be some bypath, they should choose it, and not go straight on; then they may circumspectly wander from village to village.

— Third Lecture(6)

I shall become a Sramana who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering a village or scot-free town, &c., take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given.

— Seventh Lecture (1)

See also

• Into Great Silence— The award-winning documentary on thehermitmonks of theCatholicCarthusianOrder.
• Jangam Monk
• Mainchín,andMonahan,names of Gaelic origin, diminutive ofIrish:Manach,Latin:Monachus,"a Monk".
• Sadhu

References

This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Monk".Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.

Further reading

• Chadwick, Owen (1981).The Popes and European Revolution.Clarendon Press. pp.211–252.ISBN9780198269199.Alsoonline

External links

• Orthodox MonasteriesInternet Directory
• Historyfish.net Texts and articles on Western Christian Monks, Monastics, and the Monastic Life.
• An Orthodox noviceandA hieromonk,Photos fromValaam Monastery,Russia
• Monasticism Studies Areaat www.monachos.net