Wikipedia

Mosquito control

For the 1998 Isis album, seeThe Mosquito Control EP.

Mosquito controlmanages the population ofmosquitoesto reduce their damage to human health, economies, and enjoyment. Mosquito control is a vital public-health practice throughout the world and especially in the tropics because mosquitoes spread many diseases, such asmalariaand theZika virus.

Mosquitoes are generally considered annoying and some species transmit diseases, thus leading to a variety of human efforts to eradicate or reduce their presence.

Mosquito-control operations are targeted to multiple problems:

  • Nuisance mosquitoes bother people around homes or in parks and recreational areas;
  • Economically important mosquitoes reducereal estatevalues, adversely affecttourismand related business interests, or negatively impactlivestockorpoultryproduction;
  • Public health is the focus when mosquitoes arevectors,or transmitters, of infectiousdisease.
  • Mosquito-borne diseases can threatenendangered species.

Disease organisms transmitted by mosquitoes includeWest Nile virus,Saint Louis encephalitis virus,Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus,Everglades virus,Highlands J virus,La Crosse Encephalitisvirus in the United States;dengue fever,yellow fever,Ilheus virus,malaria,Zika virusandfilariasisin theAmerican tropics;Rift Valley fever,Wuchereria bancrofti,Japanese encephalitis,chikungunyaand filariasis in Africa and Asia; andMurray Valley encephalitisin Australia.Vertical transmissionfrom adult mosquitos to larvae is possible.[1]

Depending on the situation, source reduction, biocontrol,larviciding(killing oflarvae), or adulticiding (killing of adults) may be used to manage mosquito populations. These techniques are accomplished using habitat modification,pesticide,biological-control agents, and trapping. The advantage of non-toxic methods of control is they can be used inConservation Areas.

Integrated pest management(IPM) is the use of the most environmentally appropriate method or combination of methods to control pest populations. Typical mosquito-control programs using IPM first conduct surveys, in order to determine thespecies composition,relative abundance and seasonal distribution of adult and larval mosquitoes, and only then is a control strategy defined.

Monitoring mosquito populations

edit

Adult mosquito populations may be monitored by landing rate counts, mechanical traps or by,lidar technology[2][3]For landing rate counts, an inspector visits a set number of sites every day, counting the number of adult female mosquitoes that land on a part of the body, such as an arm or both legs, within a given time interval. Mechanical traps use a fan to blow adult mosquitoes into a collection bag that is taken back to the laboratory for analysis of catch. The mechanical traps use visual cues (light, black/white contrasts) or chemical attractants that are normally given off by mosquito hosts (e.g.,carbon dioxide,ammonia,lactic acid,octenol) to attract adult female mosquitoes. These cues are often used in combination. Entomology lidar detection has the possibility of showing the difference between male and female mosquitoes.[2]

Monitoring larval mosquito populations involves collecting larvae from standing water with a dipper or aturkey baster.The habitat, approximate total number of larvae andpupae,and species are noted for each collection. An alternative method works by providing artificial breeding spots (ovitraps) and collecting and counting the developing larvae at fixed intervals.[4]Monitoring these mosquito populations is crucial to see what species are present, if mosquito numbers are rising or falling, and detecting any diseases they carry.[4]

Mosquito Alertis a cooperativecitizen scienceproject, currently run as anon-profitand coordinated by four public research centers in Spain.[5]The aim of the project is to study, monitor, and fight the spread of invasive mosquitos.[6]The project provided the first detection of the Asian bush mosquitoAedes japonicusin Spain in 2018, providing the first report of a population of mosquitos that were located 1,300 km from their previously nearest known location in Europe.[7]

Mechanical control

edit

Mechanical controlis the management and control using physical means.

Source reduction

edit

Since many mosquitoes breed instanding water,source reduction can be as simple as emptying water from containers around the home. This is something that homeowners can accomplish. Mosquito breeding grounds can be eliminated at home by removing unused plasticpools,oldtires,orbuckets;by clearing cloggedguttersand repairing leaks aroundfaucets;by regularly (at most every 4 days) changing water inbird baths;and by filling or draining puddles, swampy areas, and tree stumps. Eliminating such mosquito breeding areas can be an extremely effective and permanent way to reduce mosquito populations without resorting to insecticides.[8]However, this may not be possible in parts of thedeveloping worldwhere water cannot be readily replaced due to irregular water supply. Many individuals also believe mosquito control is the government's responsibility, so if these methods are not done regularly by homeowners then the effectiveness is reduced.[9]

Open water marsh management (OWMM) involves the use of shallow ditches, to create a network of water flow within marshes and to connect the marsh to a pond or canal. The network of ditches drains the mosquito habitat and lets in fish which will feed on mosquito larvae. This reduces the need for other control methods such aspesticides.Simply giving the predators access to the mosquito larvae can result in long-term mosquito control.[10]Open-water marsh management is used on both the eastern and western coasts of the United States.[citation needed]

Rotational impoundment management (RIM) involves the use of large pumps and culverts with gates to control the water level within an impounded marsh. RIM allows mosquito control to occur while still permitting the marsh to function in a state as close to its natural condition as possible. Water is pumped into the marsh in the late spring and summer to prevent the female mosquito from laying her eggs on the soil. The marsh is allowed to drain in the fall, winter, and early spring. Gates in the culverts are used to permit fish, crustaceans, and other marsh organisms to enter and exit the marsh. RIM allows the mosquito-control goals to be met while at the same time reducing the need for pesticide use within the marsh. Rotational impoundment management is used to a great extent on the east coast of Florida.[11]

A 2019 study also explored the idea of usingunmanned aerial vehiclesas a valid strategy to identify and prioritize water bodies wheredisease vectorssuch asNy.darlingiare most likely to breed.[12]

Oil drip

edit

An oil drip can or oil drip barrel was a common and nontoxic anti-mosquito measure.[13][14][15][16][17][18]The thin layer of oil on top of the water prevents mosquito breeding in two ways:[19]mosquito larvae in the water cannot penetrate the oil film with their breathing tube, and so drown and die; also adult mosquitoes do not lay eggs on the oiled water.

Mosquito traps

edit

Alight trapthat attracts and captures mosquitoes.

A traditional approach to controlling mosquito populations is the use ofovitrapsorlethal ovitraps,which provide artificial breeding spots for mosquitoes to lay their eggs. While ovitraps only trap eggs, lethal ovitraps usually contain a chemical inside the trap that is used to kill the adult mosquito and/or the larvae in the trap. Studies have shown that with enough of these lethal ovitraps,Aedesmosquito populations can be controlled.[20]A recent approach is the automatic lethal ovitrap, which works like a traditional ovitrap but automates all steps needed to provide the breeding spots and to destroy the developing larvae.[21]

In 2016 researchers fromLaurentian Universityreleased a design for a low cost trap called anOvillantawhich consists of attractant-laced water in a section of discarded rubber tire. At regular intervals the water is run through a filter to remove any deposited eggs and larva. The water, which then contains an 'oviposition' pheromone deposited during egg-laying, is reused to attract more mosquitoes. Two studies have shown that this type of trap can attract about seven times as many mosquito eggs as a conventional ovitrap.[22][23][24][25]

Some newer mosquito traps or known mosquito attractants emit a plume of carbon dioxide together with other mosquito attractants such as sugary scents,lactic acid,octenol,warmth, water vapor and sounds.[26]By mimicking a mammal's scent and outputs, the trap draws female mosquitoes toward it, where they are typically sucked into a net or holder by an electric fan where they are collected. According to the American Mosquito Control Association, the trap will kill some mosquitoes, but their effectiveness in any particular case will depend on a number of factors such as the size and species of the mosquito population and the type and location of the breeding habitat.[citation needed]They are useful in specimen collection studies to determine the types of mosquitoes prevalent in an area but are typically far too inefficient to be useful in reducing mosquito populations.[citation needed]

Trap larva

edit

This is a process of achieving sustainable mosquito control in an eco friendly manner by providing artificial breeding grounds with anovitrap[27]or anovillanta[28]utilizing common household utensils and destroying larvae by non-hazardous natural means such as throwing them in dry places or feeding them to larvae eating fishes likeGambusia affinis,or suffocating them by spreading a thin plastic sheet over the entire water surface to block atmospheric air. Shifting the water with larvae to another vessel and pouring a few drops ofkeroseneoil or insecticide/larvicide in it is another option for killing wrigglers, butnot preferred due to its environmental impact.Most of the ornamental fishes eat mosquito larvae.[citation needed]

Chemical control

edit

Chemical controlis the management and control using chemical means.

Larviciding

edit

Control of larvae can be accomplished through use of contact poisons, growth regulators, surface films, stomach poisons (including bacterial agents), and biological agents such as fungi, nematodes, copepods, and fish.[29]A chemical commonly used in theUnited Statesismethoprene,considered slightlytoxicto larger animals, which mimics and interferes with natural growth hormones in mosquito larvae, preventing development. Methoprene is frequently distributed in time-releasebriquetteform in breeding areas. Another chemical is Temefos ortemephos,a sand granular insecticide is used to treat water infected with disease carrying insects.

It is believed by some researchers that the larvae ofAnopheles gambiae(important vectors of malaria) can survive for several days on moist mud, and that treatments should therefore include mud and soil several meters from puddles.[30]

Adulticiding

edit

Control of adult mosquitoes is the most familiar aspect of mosquito control to most of the public. It is accomplished by ground-based applications or viaaerial application[31]of residual chemical insecticides such asDuet.Generally modern mosquito-control programs in developed countries use low-volume applications of insecticides, although some programs may still use thermal fogging. Beside fogging there are some otherinsect repellentsfor indoors and outdoors. An example of a synthetic insect repellent isDEET.A naturally occurring repellent iscitronella.Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) is another method of adulticide. Walls of properties are sprayed with an insecticide, the mosquitoes die when they land on the surface covered in insecticide.[32]

To control adult mosquitoes in India, van mounted fogging machines and hand fogging machines are used.[33][34][35]

  • Anti-mosquito fogging operation inIndia
  • A mosquito repellent vaporizer containingPrallethrin
  • Amosquito coil
  • Indoor residual spraying in Kenya
  • Walls onIRS-treated bathroom on the shores of Lake Victoria. The mosquitoes remain on the wall until they fall down dead on the floor.
  • In 1958, theNational Malaria Eradication Programimplemented the wide-scale use of DDT for mosquito control.

Use of DDT

edit
Main article:DDT

DDTwas formerly used throughout the world for large area mosquito control, but it is now banned in most developed countries.[36]

Controversially, DDT remains in common use in manydeveloping countries(14 countries were reported to be using it in 2009[36]), which claim that the public-health cost of switching to other control methods would exceed the harm caused by using DDT. It is sometimes approved for use only in specific, limited circumstances where it is most effective, such as application to walls.[citation needed]

The role of DDT in combating mosquitoes has been the subject of considerable controversy. Although DDT has been proven to affect biodiversity and cause eggshell thinning in birds such as the bald eagle, some say that DDT is the most effective weapon in combating mosquitoes, and hence malaria. While some of this disagreement is based on differences in the extent to which disease control is valued as opposed to the value of biodiversity,[citation needed]there is also genuine disagreement amongst experts about the costs and benefits of using DDT.[dubious–discuss]

Notwithstanding, DDT-resistant mosquitoes have started to increase in numbers, especially in tropics due to mutations, reducing the effectiveness of this chemical; these mutations can rapidly spread over vast areas if pesticides are applied indiscriminately (Chevillon et al. 1999). In areas where DDT resistance is encountered,malathion,propoxurorlindaneis used.

Toxicant Dosage in g/m2 Average duration of effectiveness in months
DDT 1 to 2 6 to 12
Lindane 0.5 3
Malathion 2 3
Propoxur 2 3

Chemicals from body odor that attract mosquitoes

edit

Mosquitoesare highly adept at locating their human hosts, largely due to their ability to detect specific chemicals present in human body odor. Research has identified several compounds in human sweat and skin that are particularly attractive to mosquitoes. Understanding these attractants is crucial for developing more effective mosquito control methods, including targeted repellents and traps that mimic human odors to lure mosquitoes away from people.[37]

Key Attractants

edit
  1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2):One of the most well-known attractants, carbon dioxide is exhaled by humans and detected by mosquitoes from a considerable distance. It is often the initial cue that mosquitoes use to locate potential hosts.
  2. Lactic Acid:Found in human sweat, lactic acid is a significant attractant for many mosquito species, including those that transmit malaria and dengue fever. Its concentration can vary among individuals, partly explaining why mosquitoes are more attracted to some people than others.
  3. Octenol:Also known as mushroom alcohol, octenol is present in human breath and sweat. It is particularly attractive to some mosquito species and is used in combination with carbon dioxide in mosquito traps.
  4. Acetone and Sulcatone: These compounds are found in human breath and skin, and research has shown that they also play a role in attracting mosquitoes.
  5. Ammonia:Released through the skin, especially with increased sweat production, ammonia is another compound that attracts mosquitoes. Moreover, recent studies have implicated other compounds such as fatty acids and certain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in mosquito attraction, expanding the list of known attractants.

Among these attractants, CO2 and lactic acid are considered the most effective, with CO2 attracting mosquitoes from the longest distances and lactic acid influencing their preference for certain individuals.

Implications for Mosquito Control

edit

Understanding the specific chemicals that attract mosquitoes facilitates the development of innovative control strategies. For example, mosquito traps that emit both CO2 and lactic acid have proven more effective in luring mosquitoes away from human populations, significantly reducing the risk of bites and the spread of diseases. Additionally, personal repellents engineered to mask or chemically alter these attractants can render individuals less detectable to mosquitoes. Integrating these repellents into daily personal care routines, especially in regions prone to mosquito-borne diseases, offers a proactive approach to disease prevention.

Research into the chemical properties of human body odor that attract mosquitoes reveals complex interactions between mosquito host-seeking behavior and human chemical signatures. By deciphering these mechanisms, scientists aim to devise solutions that could substantially reduce the incidence of mosquito-borne diseases. Advances in synthetic biology and nanotechnology are opening new avenues for creating targeted compounds and delivery systems that efficiently combat mosquitoes without harming the environment.

Enhancements and Future Directions

edit

While existing repellents and traps offer temporary solutions, they frequently fall short due to their limited duration of effectiveness and inconsistent efficacy across different mosquito species. For example, many current repellents do not provide all-night protection, and traps might not attract all types of mosquitoes. Future research should prioritize the discovery of new attractant compounds through molecular biology and high-throughput screening methods, aiming to develop more universally effective and durable mosquito control solutions.

Addressing the ecological impacts of widespread use of chemical attractants and repellents is also essential. Careful evaluation is needed to ensure these methods do not harm non-target species or disrupt ecological balances. In practical scenarios, leveraging these insights could transform how we manage mosquito populations and reduce disease transmission. With ongoing technological advancements and deeper understanding of mosquito ecology, we can anticipate the development of next-generation repellents and attractant-based traps that provide robust and environmentally friendly protection against mosquitoes.

Biological control

edit

Biological controlis the management and control using biological means.

Natural predation

edit
Gambusia affinis(Mosquitofish), a natural mosquito predator.
AHygieostatic Bat Roost,custom-built to house bats for biocontrol of mosquitos

Biological pest control,or "biocontrol", is the use of the natural enemies of pests like mosquitoes to manage the pest's populations. There are several types of biocontrol, including the direct introduction of parasites, pathogens, and predators to target mosquitoes. Effective biocontrol agents include predatory fish that feed on mosquito larvae such asmosquitofish(Gambusia affinis) and somecyprinids(carps and minnows) andkillifish.Tilapiaalso consumemosquitolarvae.[38]Direct introduction of tilapia and mosquitofish into ecosystems around the world have had disastrous consequences.[39]However, utilizing a controlled system viaaquaponicsprovides the mosquito control without the adverse effects to the ecosystem.

Other predators include dragonfly (fly)naiads,which consume mosquito larvae in the breeding waters, adultdragonflies,which eat adult mosquitoes, and some species oflizardandgecko.[40]Biocontrol agents that have had lesser degrees of success include the predator mosquitoToxorhynchitesand predatorcrustaceans—Mesocyclopscopepods,[41]nematodesandfungi.[42]Predators such as birds, bats, lizards, and frogs have been used, but their effectiveness is only anecdotal.

Biocides

edit

Instead of chemical insecticides, some researchers are studying biocides. Like all animals, mosquitoes are subject to disease. Invertebrate pathologists study these diseases in the hope that some of them can be utilized for mosquito management. Microbial pathogens of mosquitoes include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes and microsporidia.[43][page needed][44]

Most notably, scientists inBurkina Fasowere studying theMetarhiziumfungal species. This fungus in a high concentration can slowly kill mosquitoes. To increase the lethality of the fungus, a gene from a spider was inserted into the fungus causing it to produce aneurotoxin.The gene was regulated to only activate when in mosquito hemolymph. Research was done to show the fungi would not affect other insects or humans.[45][46][47][48]Two other species of fungi that can kill adult mosquitoes areMetarhizium anisopliaeandBeauveria bassiana.[49]

Dead spores of thesoilbacteriumBacillus thuringiensis,especiallyBt israelensis(BTI) interfere withdipteranlarvaldigestivesystems. It can be dispersed by hand or dropped byhelicopterin large areas. BTI loses effectiveness after the larvae turn into pupae, because they stop eating.[citation needed]BTI was reported to be widely applied in West Africa with limited adverse effects, and may pose lesser risk than chemical pesticides.[50]

Wolbachia method

edit

In theWolbachiamethod,[51]both male and female mosquitos that carry theWolbachiabacterium are released into natural populations.[52]Wolbachiaboosts the natural immune response of the mosquito so that it does not easily get infected and become a host vector for mosquito-borne diseases.[53]Therefore it is unable to easily transmit those viruses to people. This is known as replacement strategy as it aims to replace the natural population withWolbachia-carrying ones.[54]Since 2011, theWorld Mosquito Programhas conducted several trials and projects, in 14 countries across Asia, Latin America and Oceania.

Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT)

edit

This approach also usesWolbachiabut involves the release of only male mosquitos that carry theWolbachiabacterium. When these male mosquitos mate with wild female mosquitos, her eggs do not hatch due to lack of biocompatibility.[55]Wolbachiais not endemic to wild mosquito populations although it is endemic in 50% of all insect species.[56]This is known as suppression strategy as it aims to suppress the natural reproduction cycle.[57]Wolbachia-Aedessuppression has been piloted in various countries such as Myanmar (1967), French Polynesia (2009, 2012), USA (2014-2016, 2018), Thailand (2016), Australia (2017), Singapore (since 2016) and Puerto Rico (2020).[58]

Projects

edit

Maui and Kuai, Hawaii - A series of IIT projects were planned to protect endangered bird species fromavian malaria.The projects involve the release of large numbers of male mosquitos infected with a strain ofWolbachiathat is incompatible with the strain carried by resident females. These mosquitos would not be irradiated or subject to genetic modification.[59]

Sterile Insect Technique (SIT)

edit

Introducing large numbers of sterile malesis another approach to reducing mosquito numbers. This is calledSterile Insect Technique(SIT).[60]Radiation is used to disrupt DNA in the mosquitoes and randomly create mutations. Males with mutations that disrupt their fertility are selected and released in mass into the wild population. These sterile males mate with wild type females and no offspring is produced, reducing the population size.[61]

Projects

edit

Guangzhou, China - A combination of SIT with IIT, were used in a mosquito control program in Guangzhou, China. The pilot trial was carried out with the support of theIAEAin cooperation with theFood and Agriculture Organizationof theUnited Nations(FAO). The pilot demonstrated the successful near-elimination of field populations of the world's most invasive mosquito species,Aedes albopictus(Asian tiger mosquito). The two-year trial (2016–2017) covered a 32.5-hectare area on two relatively isolated islands in thePearl Riverin Guangzhou. It involved the release of about 200 million irradiated mass-reared adult male mosquitoes exposed toWolbachiabacteria.[62]

Genetic modification

edit

These techniques share the characteristic of introducing lethal genes and reducing the size of the mosquito population over time.

Growth inhibition

edit

Another control approach under investigation forAedes aegyptiuses a strain that isgenetically modifiedto require the antibiotictetracyclineto develop beyond the larval stage. Modified males develop normally in a nursery while they are supplied with this chemical and can be released into the wild. However, their subsequent offspring will lack tetracycline in the wild and never mature.[63]Field trials were conducted in the Cayman Islands, Malaysia and Brazil to control the mosquitoes that cause dengue fever. In April 2014, Brazil's National Technical Commission for Biosecurity approved the commercial release of the modified mosquito.[64][65]TheFDAis the lead agency for regulating genetically-engineered mosquitoes in the United States.[66] In 2014 and 2018 research was reported into other genetic methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement.[67]Although several years away from the field trial stage, if successful these other methods have the potential to be cheaper and to eradicate theAedes aegyptimosquito more efficiently.[68]

A pioneering experimental demonstration of thegene drivemethod eradicated small populations ofAnopheles gambiae.[69][70]

In 2020,Oxitec's non-biting Friendly Aedes aegypti mosquito was approved for release by the USEPAand Florida state authorities.[71]

Projects

edit

Malaysia - In several experiments, researchers released batches of male adult Aedes mosquitos with genetic modifications to study the effects of dispersal and reproduction in natural populations. Mosquito traps were ultilized for the purpose of these studies.[72]The process allowed for the opportunity to determine which mosquitoes were affected, and provided a group to be re-released with genetic modifications resulting in the OX513A variant to reduce reproduction. Adult mosquitoes are attracted inside the traps where they died of dehydration.

Factor EOF1

edit

Research is being conducted that indicates that dismantling a protein associated with eggshell organization, factor EOF1 (factor 1), which may be unique to mosquitoes, may be a means to hamper their reproduction effectively in the wild without creating a resistant population or affecting other animals.[73][74]

edit

InSingapore,under the Control of Vectors and Pesticides Act there is a legal duty on occupants to preventAedesmosquitos from breeding in their homes. If breeding mosquitos are found by inspectors, occupiers are subject to a fine of 5,000Singapore dollarsor imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 months or both.[75]

Proposals to eradicate mosquitoes

edit

Some biologists have proposed the deliberate extinction of certain mosquito species. BiologistOlivia Judsonhas advocated "specicide"of thirtymosquitospecies by introducing a genetic element which can insert itself into another crucial gene, to createrecessive"knockout genes".[76]She says that theAnophelesmosquitoes (which spreadmalaria) andAedesmosquitoes (which spreaddengue fever,yellow fever,elephantiasis,zika,and other diseases) represent only 30 out of some 3,500 mosquito species; eradicating these would save at least one million human lives per year, at a cost of reducing thegenetic diversityof thefamilyCulicidaeby 1%. She further argues that since species become extinct "all the time" the disappearance of a few more will not destroy theecosystem:"We're not left with a wasteland every time a species vanishes. Removing one species sometimes causes shifts in the populations of other species — but different need not mean worse." In addition, anti-malarial andmosquito control programsoffer little realistic hope to the 300 million people indeveloping nationswho will be infected with acute illnesses each year. Although trials are ongoing, she writes that if they fail: "We should consider the ultimate swatting."[76]

BiologistE. O. Wilsonhas advocated the extinction of several species of mosquito, including malaria vectorAnopheles gambiae.Wilson stated, "I'm talking about a very small number of species that have co-evolved with us and are preying on humans, so it would certainly be acceptable to remove them. I believe it's just common sense."[77]

Insect ecologist Steven Juliano has argued that "it's difficult to see what the downside would be to removal, except for collateral damage". Entomologist Joe Conlon stated that "If we eradicated them tomorrow, the ecosystems where they are active will hiccup and then get on with life. Something better or worse would take over."[78]

However,David Quammenhas pointed out that mosquitoes protect forests from human exploitation and may act as competitors for other insects.[79]In terms of malaria control, if populations of mosquitoes were temporarily reduced to zero in a region, then this would exterminate malaria, and the mosquito population could then be allowed to rebound.[80]

See also

edit

Citations

edit
  1. ^Cecílio, S. G.; Júnior, W. F. S.; Tótola, A. H.; de Brito Magalhães, C. L.; Ferreira, J. M. S.; de Magalhães, J. C. (2015)."Dengue virus detection in Aedes aegypti larvae from southeastern Brazil".Journal of Vector Ecology.40(1):71–74.doi:10.1111/jvec.12134.PMID26047186.
  2. ^abGebru, Alem; Jansson, Samuel; Ignell, Rickard; Kirkeby, Carsten; Prangsma, Jord C.; Brydegaard, Mikkel (August 2018)."Multiband modulation spectroscopy for the determination of sex and species of mosquitoes in flight"(PDF).Journal of Biophotonics.11(8): e201800014.doi:10.1002/jbio.201800014.PMID29508537.S2CID4927282.
  3. ^Petrić D, Bellini R, Scholte EJ, Rakotoarivony LM, Schaffner F (April 2014)."Monitoring population and environmental parameters of invasive mosquito species in Europe".Parasites & Vectors.7(1): 187.doi:10.1186/1756-3305-7-187.PMC4005621.PMID24739334.
  4. ^abSasmita, H. I.; Neoh, K.-B.; et al. (2021)."Ovitrap surveillance of dengue vector mosquitoes in Bandung City, West Java Province, Indonesia".PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.15(10): e0009896.doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0009896.PMC8577782.PMID34710083.
  5. ^ssn_admin."What is Mosquito Alert".Mosquito Alert.Retrieved18 July2023.
  6. ^Palmer, John R. B.; Oltra, Aitana; Collantes, Francisco; Delgado, Juan Antonio; Lucientes, Javier; Delacour, Sarah; Bengoa, Mikel; Eritja, Roger; Bartumeus, Frederic (24 October 2017)."Citizen science provides a reliable and scalable tool to track disease-carrying mosquitoes".Nature Communications.8(1): 916.Bibcode:2017NatCo...8..916P.doi:10.1038/s41467-017-00914-9.ISSN2041-1723.PMC5655677.PMID29066710.
  7. ^Segura, Cristian (17 June 2020)."The new invasive mosquito species spreading 'like an oil stain' in Spain".EL PAÍS English.Retrieved18 July2023.
  8. ^Healy K, Hamilton G, Crepeau T, Healy S, Unlu I, Farajollahi A, Fonseca DM (25 September 2014)."Integrating the public in mosquito management: active education by community peers can lead to significant reduction in peridomestic container mosquito habitats".PLOS ONE.9(9): e108504.Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j8504H.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0108504.PMC4177891.PMID25255027.
  9. ^Mainali S, Lamichhane RS, Clark K, Beatty S, Fatouros M, Neville P, Oosthuizen J (March 2017)."'Looking over the Backyard Fence': Householders and Mosquito Control ".International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.14(3): 246.doi:10.3390/ijerph14030246.PMC5369082.PMID28257079.
  10. ^"Chapter 4: Mosquito Control Through Source Reduction".Florida Mosquito Control (White Paper). Florida Coordinating Council on Mosquito Control. Archived fromthe originalon 28 October 2008.
  11. ^Tabachnick WJ (September 2016)."Research Contributing to Improvements in Controlling Florida's Mosquitoes and Mosquito-borne Diseases".Insects.7(4): 50.doi:10.3390/insects7040050.PMC5198198.PMID27690112.
  12. ^Carrasco-Escobar, Gabriel; Manrique, Edgar; Ruiz-Cabrejos, Jorge; Vinetz, Joseph M.; Prussing, Catharine; Bickersmith, Sara; Alava, Freddy; Saavedra, Marlon; Gamboa, Dionicia (17 January 2019)."High-accuracy detection of malaria vector larval habitats using drone-based multispectral imagery".PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.13(1): e0007105.doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0007105.PMC6353212.PMID30653491.
  13. ^Haskin, Frederic Jennings (1914).The Panama Canal.Doubleday, Page. pp.114–.
  14. ^"1311631. An oil drip can operates in a creek to prevent mosquito breeding".National Geographic Creative. Archived fromthe originalon 29 January 2013.
  15. ^Kent, John L. (February 1946)."Will Malaria Strike at Home?".Popular Mechanics:76–80, 166.ISSN0032-4558.
  16. ^"HireKill Cyprus - Services - Aquatain Mosquito Control Eco Friendly".hirekill.com.Archived fromthe originalon 7 November 2016.Retrieved13 February2013.
  17. ^"Management of Malaria".vlib.us.
  18. ^Adjusting an oil drip-can over a New Guinea streamduring World War II.
  19. ^Le Prince, J. A. A. (1915). "Control of Malaria: Oiling as an Antimosquito Measure".Public Health Reports.30(9):599–608.doi:10.2307/4571997.JSTOR4571997.
  20. ^Zeichner BC, Debboun M (2011)."The lethal ovitrap: a response to the resurgence of dengue and chikungunya".U.S. Army Medical Department Journal:4–11.PMID21805450.
  21. ^Dibo, Margareth Regina; Chiaravalloti-Neto, Francisco; Battigaglia, Marcos; Mondini, Adriano; Favaro, Eliane A.; Barbosa, Angelita AC; Glasser, Carmen M. (July 2005)."Identification of the best ovitrap installation sites for gravid Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti in residences in Mirassol, state of São Paulo, Brazil".Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.100(4):339–343.doi:10.1590/S0074-02762005000400001.ISSN0074-0276.PMID16113880.
  22. ^Gignac, Julien (8 April 2016)."Canadian researcher's mosquito trap offers hope in fight against Zika spread".The Globe and Mail.
  23. ^Yang, Jennifer (7 April 2016)."A Canadian team is testing a $4 hack to solve the Zika crisis".Toronto Star.
  24. ^"How this Canadian-designed mosquito trap could help fight Zika virus".CBC Radio: As it Happens.7 April 2016.
  25. ^Roth, Amanda (7 April 2016)."How Canadian Scientists Plan to Fight Zika With Old Tires and Milk".Motherboard.
  26. ^Okumu FO, Killeen GF, Ogoma S, Biswaro L, Smallegange RC, Mbeyela E, Titus E, Munk C, Ngonyani H, Takken W, Mshinda H, Mukabana WR, Moore SJ (January 2010). Rénia L (ed.)."Development and field evaluation of a synthetic mosquito lure that is more attractive than humans".PLOS ONE.5(1): e8951.Bibcode:2010PLoSO...5.8951O.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008951.PMC2812511.PMID20126628.
  27. ^"Controlling Dengue Outbreaks".Nature.Retrieved21 July2018.
  28. ^"New way to trap, kill mosquito eggs may help fight Zika- News Nation".News Nation.10 April 2016.Retrieved21 July2018.
  29. ^Walker K, Lynch M (March 2007). "Contributions of Anopheles larval control to malaria suppression in tropical Africa: review of achievements and potential".Medical and Veterinary Entomology.21(1):2–21.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.2007.00674.x.PMID17373942.S2CID30524896.
  30. ^"Mosquito 'factories' to fight malaria".New Scientist.23–30 December 2006. p. 7.The article quotes Jim Miller ofMichigan State University.
  31. ^"Aerial spraying planned in eight Orange County cities in battle to control West Nile virus; Vector Control says it's safe".The Orange County Register.4 September 2015.
  32. ^Johns B, Yihdego YY, Kolyada L, Dengela D, Chibsa S, Dissanayake G, George K, Taffese HS, Lucas B (December 2016)."Indoor Residual Spraying Delivery Models to Prevent Malaria: Comparison of Community- and District-Based Approaches in Ethiopia".Global Health: Science and Practice.4(4):529–541.doi:10.9745/ghsp-d-16-00165.PMC5199172.PMID27965266.
  33. ^Special Correspondent (15 June 2012)."Intensive anti-mosquito fogging operation launched by civic body".The Hindu.Retrieved12 October2013.{{cite news}}:|author=has generic name (help)
  34. ^Staff Reporter (8 November 2012)."Mayor inspects anti-mosquito operations".The Hindu.Retrieved12 October2013.
  35. ^Madhavan, Karthik (5 December 2012)."Civic body's mosquito control measures only on paper".The Hindu.Retrieved12 October2013.
  36. ^abCone, Maria (4 May 2009)Should DDT Be Used to Combat Malaria?Scientific American. Retrieved 13 October 2014
  37. ^Martinez, Julien; Showering, Alicia; Oke, Catherine; Jones, Robert T.; Logan, James G. (15 February 2021)."Differential attraction in mosquito–human interactions and implications for disease control".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.376(1818): 20190811.doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0811.ISSN0962-8436.PMC7776937.PMID33357061.
  38. ^Jianguo, Wang; Dashu, Ni (1995)."31. A Comparative Study of the Ability of Fish to Catch Mosquito Larva".In MacKay, Kenneth T. (ed.).Rice-fish culture in China.International Development Research Centre.ISBN978-1-55250-313-3.Archived fromthe originalon 9 June 2011.
  39. ^Alcaraz, C; Garciaberthou, E (2007)."Life history variation of invasive mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) along a salinity gradient"(PDF).Biological Conservation.139(1–2):83–92.Bibcode:2007BCons.139...83A.doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.06.006.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 December 2012.
  40. ^Canyon DV, Hii JL (October 1997). "The gecko: an environmentally friendly biological agent for mosquito control".Medical and Veterinary Entomology.11(4):319–23.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1997.tb00416.x.PMID9430109.S2CID26987818.
  41. ^Marten GG, Reid JW (2007). "Cyclopoid copepods".Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association.23(2 Suppl):65–92.doi:10.2987/8756-971X(2007)23[65:CC]2.0.CO;2.PMID17853599.S2CID7645668.
  42. ^"Chapter 7: Biological and Alternative Control".Florida Mosquito Control (White Paper). Florida Coordinating Council on Mosquito Control. Archived fromthe originalon 1 July 2004.
  43. ^Davidson, E., ed. (1981).Pathogenesis of Invertebrate Micorobial Diseases.Totowa, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun & Co. Publishers.ISBN978-0-86598-014-3.
  44. ^Jahn, G.C.; Hall, D.W.; Zam, S.G. (1986)."A comparison of the life cycles of two Amblyospora (Microspora: Amblyosporidae) in the mosquitoes Culex salinarius Coquillett and Culex tarsalis Coquillett"(PDF).Journal of the Florida Anti-Mosquito Association.57:24–27.
  45. ^"Scientists Genetically Modify Fungus To Kill Mosquitoes That Spread Malaria".NPR.org.NPR.
  46. ^"Transgenic fungus shows huge promise for malaria control in West Africa".Alliance for Science.Retrieved14 May2020.
  47. ^Diep, Francie."Genetically altered fungus designed to attack malaria in mosquitoes".Scientific American.Retrieved14 May2020.
  48. ^Lovett, Brian; Bilgo, Etienne; Millogo, Souro Abel; Ouattarra, Abel Kader; Sare, Issiaka; Gnambani, Edounou Jacques; Dabire, Roch K.; Diabate, Abdoulaye; Leger, Raymond J. St (31 May 2019)."Transgenic Metarhizium rapidly kills mosquitoes in a malaria-endemic region of Burkina Faso".Science.364(6443):894–897.Bibcode:2019Sci...364..894L.doi:10.1126/science.aaw8737.ISSN0036-8075.PMID31147521.S2CID171093096.
  49. ^McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (10 June 2005)."Fungus Fatal to Mosquito May Aid Global War on Malaria".The New York Times.
  50. ^Rydzanicz, K.; Lonc, E. (2010). "Ecological safety of mosquitocidal biocides based on Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis".Wiad Parazytol(in Polish).56(4):305–314.PMID21452523.
  51. ^"How our method compares".World Mosquito Program.
  52. ^Yen, Pei-Shi; Failouz, Anna-Bella (9 May 2020)."A Review: Wolbachia-Based Population Replacement for Mosquito Control Shares Common Points with Genetically Modified Control Approaches".Pathogens.9(5): 404.doi:10.3390/pathogens9050404.PMC7281599.PMID32456036.
  53. ^Zhang, D.; Wang, Y.; He, K.; Yang, Q.; Gong, M.; Ji, M.; Chen, L. (2020)."Wolbachia limits pathogen infections through induction of host innate immune responses".PLOS ONE.15(2): e0226736.Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1526736Z.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226736.PMC703268.PMID32078642.
  54. ^"Wolbachia Innovative Strategy".Wolbachia Malaysia.25 May 2021.
  55. ^Jeffries, Claire; Walker, Thomas (2 February 2016)."Wolbachia Biocontrol Strategies for Arboviral Diseases and the Potential Influence of Resident Wolbachia Strains in Mosquitoes".Current Tropical Medicine Reports.3:20–25.doi:10.1007/s40475-016-0066-2.PMC4757633.PMID26925368.
  56. ^Hunter, Ann (12 August 2021)."Growth and Maintenance of Wolbachia in Insect Cell Lines".Insects.12(8): 706.doi:10.3390/insects12080706.PMC8396524.PMID34442272.
  57. ^Crawford, J.E.; Clarke, D.W.; Criswell, V (2020)."Efficient production of male Wolbachia-infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes enables large-scale suppression of wild populations".Nature Biotechnology.38(4):482–492.doi:10.1038/s41587-020-0471-x.PMID32265562.S2CID214809737.
  58. ^"Wolbachia suppression strategy".National Environment Agency.Government of Singapore.
  59. ^Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources; U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (13 October 2023)."Wildlife Conservation Agencies (State & Federal) Are One Step Closer to Protecting Forest Birds from Mosquito-borne Diseases on Kaua'i".governor.hawaii.gov.Retrieved16 October2023.
  60. ^Alphey L, Benedict M, Bellini R, Clark GG, Dame DA, Service MW, Dobson SL (April 2010)."Sterile-insect methods for control of mosquito-borne diseases: an analysis".Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases.10(3):295–311.doi:10.1089/vbz.2009.0014.PMC2946175.PMID19725763.
  61. ^Gilles JR, Schetelig MF, Scolari F, Marec F, Capurro ML, Franz G, Bourtzis K (April 2014)."Towards mosquito sterile insect technique programmes: exploring genetic, molecular, mechanical and behavioural methods of sex separation in mosquitoes".Acta Tropica.132 Suppl: S178–87.doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2013.08.015.PMID23994521.
  62. ^"China Uses Nuclear Sterile Insect Technique in Mosquito Control".ABC Live India. 19 July 2019.
  63. ^Urquhart, Conal (15 July 2012)."Can GM mosquitoes rid the world of a major killer?".The Observer.
  64. ^Branford, Sue (23 July 2014)."Brazil to unleash GM-mosquito swarms to fight dengue".New Scientist.Retrieved16 March2016.
  65. ^Waltz E (March 2016)."GM mosquitoes fire first salvo against Zika virus".Nature Biotechnology.34(3):221–2.doi:10.1038/nbt0316-221.PMID26963535.
  66. ^"Preliminary Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) In Support of an Investigational Field Trial of OX513A Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes"(PDF).U.S. Food and Drug Administration. March 2016.Retrieved14 March2016.
  67. ^Fletcher, Martin (11 August 2018)."Mutant mosquitoes: Can gene editing kill off malaria?".The Telegraph.Retrieved12 August2018.
  68. ^Webb, Jonathan (10 June 2014)."GM lab mosquitoes may aid malaria fight".BBC News.Retrieved11 June2014.
  69. ^Crisanti, Andrea; Nolan, Tony; Beaghton, Andrea K.; Burt, Austin; Kranjc, Nace; Galizi, Roberto; Hammond, Andrew M.; Kyrou, Kyros (24 September 2018)."A CRISPR–Cas9 gene drive targeting doublesex causes complete population suppression in caged Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes"(PDF).Nature Biotechnology.36(11):1062–6.doi:10.1038/nbt.4245.PMC6871539.PMID30247490.
  70. ^Milius, Susan (17 December 2018)."Humans wiped out mosquitoes (in one small lab test)".Science News.Retrieved23 December2018.
  71. ^LaMotte, Sandee (19 August 2020)."750 million genetically engineered mosquitoes approved for release in Florida Keys".CNN.Retrieved3 November2020.
  72. ^Lacroix R, McKemey AR, Raduan N, Kwee Wee L, Hong Ming W, Guat Ney T, et al. (2012)."Open field release of genetically engineered sterile male Aedes aegypti in Malaysia".PLOS ONE.7(8): e42771.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742771L.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042771.PMC3428326.PMID22970102.Figure 1
  73. ^Isoe, Jun; Koch, Lauren E.; Isoe, Yurika E.; Rascón, Alberto A.; Brown, Heidi E.; Massani, Brooke B.; Miesfeld, Roger L. (2019)."Identification and characterization of a mosquito-specific eggshell organizing factor in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes".PLOS Biology.17(1): e3000068.doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000068.PMC6324781.PMID30620728.
  74. ^Equitativa, Salud (9 January 2019)."GESTIÓN EN SALUD PÚBLICA: Identification and characterization of a mosquito-specific eggshell organizing factor in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes".GESTIÓN EN SALUD PÚBLICA.Retrieved20 January2024.
  75. ^"Dengue Inspection".www.nea.gov.sg.Retrieved20 January2024.
  76. ^abJudson, Olivia (25 September 2003)."A Bug's Death".The New York Times.Retrieved30 July2006.
  77. ^"Why a famous biologist wants to eradicate killer mosquitoes".PRI.
  78. ^Fang, Janet (21 July 2010)."Ecology: A world without mosquitoes".Nature.
  79. ^Quammen, David (30 March 2009).Natural Acts: A Sidelong View of Science and Nature.W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0-393-33360-2.
  80. ^"KILL 'EM ALL".Radiolab.

General references

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mosquito_control&oldid=1275368800"