The emperors of theMughal Empire,styled theEmperors of Hindustan,[1][2][3]who were all members of theTimurid dynasty(House of Babur), ruled over the empire from its inception in 1526 to its dissolution in 1857. They were the supreme monarchs of theMughal Empirein theIndian subcontinent,mainly corresponding to the modern countries ofIndia,Pakistan,AfghanistanandBangladesh.They ruled parts of India from 1526, and by 1707, ruled most of thesubcontinent.Afterwards, they declined rapidly, but nominally ruled territories until theIndian Rebellion of 1857.
| Emperor ofHindustan | |
|---|---|
Imperial | |
 Mughal Imperial Seal | |
 | |
| Details | |
| First monarch | Babur |
| Last monarch | Bahadur Shah II |
| Formation | 21 April 1526 |
| Abolition | 21 September 1857 |
| Residence | |
| Appointer | Hereditary |
The Mughals were a branch of the Timurid dynasty ofPersianizedTurco-Mongolorigin fromCentral Asia.Their founderBabur(r. 1526–1530), a Timurid prince from theFergana Valley(modern-dayUzbekistan), was a direct descendant of bothTimurandGenghis Khan.
Many of the later Mughal emperors had significantIndian RajputandPersianancestry through marriage alliances as emperors were born to Rajput and Persian princesses.[4][5][6]
During the reign ofAurangzeb,the empire, as the world's largest economy and manufacturing power, worth over 25% of global GDP,[7]controlled nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, extending fromDhakain the east toKabulin the west and fromKashmirin the north to theKaveri Riverin the south.[8]
Its population at the time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million (a quarter of the world's population), over a territory of more than 4 million square kilometres (1.5 million square miles).[9]Mughal power rapidly dwindled during the 18th century and the last emperor,Bahadur Shah II,was deposed in 1857, with the establishment of theBritish Raj.[10]
Mughal Empire
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The Mughal empire was founded byBabur,aTimuridprince and ruler fromCentral Asia.Babur was a direct descendant ofTimur,the 14th century founder of theTimurid empireon his father's side, andGenghis Khanon his mother's side.[11]Ousted from his ancestral domains inTurkestanbyShaybani Khan,the 40-year-old prince Babur turned toIndiato satisfy his ambitions. He established himself inKabuland then pushed steadily southward into India fromAfghanistanthrough theKhyber Pass.[11]Babur's forces occupied much of northern India after his victory atPanipatin 1526.[11]The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India.[12]The instability of the empire became evident under his son,Humayun,who was driven into exile in Persia by rebels.[11]Humayun's exile inPersiaestablished diplomatic ties between theSafavidand Mughal courts and led to increasing West Asian cultural influence in the Mughal court. The restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from an accident shortly afterwards.[11]Humayun's son,Akbar,succeeded to the throne under a regent,Bairam Khan,who helped consolidate theMughal Empire in India.[13]
Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of theGodavari river.[14]He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies.[11]The Indian historianAbraham Eralywrote that foreigners were often impressed by the fabulous wealth of the Mughal court, but the glittering court hid darker realities, namely that about a quarter of the empire's gross national product was owned by 655 families while the bulk of India's 120 million people lived in appalling poverty.[15]After suffering what appears to have been anepileptic seizurein 1578 while hunting tigers, which he regarded as areligious experience,Akbar grew disenchanted with Islam, and came to embrace a syncretistic mixture of Hinduism and Islam.[16]Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion,Din-i-Ilahi,with strong characteristics of a ruling cult.[11]He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.[11]Akbar was also interested in elevating the way individuals view leaders with the stylings of hisclothesand ensemble.
Akbar's son,Jahangir,was addicted toopium,neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival courtcliques.[11]During the reign of Jahangir's son,Shah Jahan,the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by theTaj Mahal.The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue being levied.[11]
Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberalDara Shikoh,became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim religion and culture. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan,Aurangzeb,seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed.[11]Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, there was a succession war for the throne between Dara and Aurangzeb. Finally, Aurangzeb succeeded the throne and kept Shah Jahan under house arrest.
During Aurangzeb's reign, the empire gained political strength once more, and it became the world's largest economy, over a quarter of the world GDP,[citation needed]but his establishment ofShariacaused huge controversies. Aurangzeb expanded the empire to include a huge part of South Asia. At its peak, the kingdom stretched to 3.2 million square kilometres, including parts of what are now India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh.[17]After his death in 1707, "many parts of the empire were in open revolt."[11]Aurangzeb's attempts to reconquer his family's ancestral lands in Central Asia were not successful while his successful conquest of theDeccan regionproved to be apyrrhic victorythat cost the empire heavily in both militarily and financially.[18]A further problem for Aurangzeb was the army had always been based upon the land-owning aristocracy of northern India who provided the cavalry for the campaigns, and the empire had nothing equivalent to thejanissarycorps of the Ottoman Empire.[18]The long and costly conquest of the Deccan had badly diminished the "aura of success" that surrounded Aurangzeb, and from the late 17th century onwards, the aristocracy became increasingly unwilling to provide forces for the empire's wars as the prospect of being rewarded with land as a result of a successful war was seen as less and less likely.[18]
Furthermore, at the conclusion of the conquest of the Deccan, Aurangzeb had very selectively rewarded some of the noble families with confiscated land in the Deccan, leaving aristocrats unrewarded with confiscated land feeling strongly disgruntled and unwilling to participate in further campaigns.[18]Aurangzeb's son,Shah Alam,repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In the year 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne".[11]
During the reign ofMuhammad Shah,the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughals to theMarathashands. Mughal warfare had always been based upon heavy artillery for sieges, heavy cavalry for offensive operations and light cavalry for skirmishing and raids.[18]To control a region, the Mughals always sought to occupy a strategic fortress in some region, which would serve as a nodal point from which the Mughal army would emerge to take on any enemy that challenged the empire.[18]This system was not only expensive but also made the army somewhat inflexible as the assumption was always the enemy would retreat into a fortress to be besieged or would engage in a set-piece decisive battle of annihilation on open ground.[18]The Hindu Marathas were expert horsemen who refused to engage in set-piece battles, but rather engaged in campaigns of guerrilla warfare upon the Mughal supply lines.[18]The Marathas were unable to take the Mughal fortresses via a storm or formal siege as they lacked the artillery, but by constantly intercepting supply columns, they were able to starve Mughal fortresses into submission.[18]
Successive Mughal commanders refused to adjust their tactics and develop an appropriate counter-insurgency strategy, which led to the Mughals losing more and more ground to the Marathas.[18]TheIndian campaignofNader Shahof Persia culminated with theSack of Delhiand shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, as well as capturing the imperial treasury, thus drastically accelerating its decline. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms. The Mughal emperor, however, continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India.[19][20]
In the next decades, theAfghans,Sikhs,andMarathasbattled against each other and the Mughals, revealing the fragmented state of the empire. The Mughal EmperorShah Alam IImade futile attempts to reverse the empire's decline, but he ultimately had to seek the protection of outside powers. In 1784, the Marathas underMahadaji Shindewon acknowledgement as the protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until after theSecond Anglo-Maratha War.Thereafter, theEast India Companybecame the protectors of theMughal dynastyinDelhi.[20]After 1835 the Company no longer recognised the authority of the emperor, accepting him only as 'King of Delhi' and removing all references to him from their coinage. After theIndian rebellionwhich he nominally led from 1857–58, the last Mughal emperor,Bahadur Shah Zafar,was deposed by the British, who then assumed formal control of a large part of the former empire,[11]marking the start of theBritish Raj.
Titular emperors
Over the course of the empire, there were several claimants to the Mughal throne who ascended the throne or claimed to do so but were never recognized.[21]
Here are the claimants to the Mughal throne historians recognise as titular Mughal emperors.
- Shahryar Mirza(1627 - 1628)
- Dawar Baksh(1627 - 1628)
- Jahangir II(1719 - 1720)
List of Mughal Emperors
edit| Portrait | Titular Name | Birth Name | Birth | Reign | Death |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1
|
Babur بابر |
Zahir ud-Din Muhammad ظهیر الدین محمد |
14 February 1483Andijan, Uzbekistan | 20 April 1526 – 26 December 1530
(4 years, 8 months and 6 days) |
26 December 1530 (aged 47)Agra, India |
2
|
Humayun همایوں |
Nasir ud-Din Muhammad نصیر الدین محمد |
6 March 1508Kabul, Afghanistan | 26 December 1530 – 17 May 1540
(9 years, 4 months and 21 days) 22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556 (11 months and 5 days) |
27 January 1556 (aged 47)Delhi,India |
3
|
Akbar اکبر |
Jalal ud-Din Muhammad جلال الدین محمد |
15 October 1542Umerkot,Pakistan | 11 February 1556 – 27 October 1605
(49 years, 8 months and 16 days) |
27 October 1605 (aged 63)Agra, India |
4
|
Jahangir جهانگیر |
Nur ud-Din Muhammad نور الدین محمد |
31 August 1569Agra, India | 3 November 1605 – 28 October 1627
(21 years, 11 months and 25 days) |
28 October 1627 (aged 58)Jammu and Kashmir, India |
5
|
Shah Jahan شاہجهان |
Shihab ud-Din Muhammad شهاب الدین محمد |
5 January 1592Lahore,Pakistan | 19 January 1628 – 31 July 1658
(30 years, 6 months and 12 days) |
22 January 1666 (aged 74)Agra, India |
6
|
Aurangzeb اورنگزیب Alamgir |
Muhi al-Din Muhammad محی الدین محمد |
3 November 1618Gujarat, India | 31 July 1658 – 3 March 1707
(48 years, 7 months and 3 days) |
3 March 1707 (aged 88Ahmednagar,India |
7
|
Azam Shah اعظم شاه |
Qutb ud-Din Muhammad قطب الدين محمد |
28 June 1653Burhanpur,India | 14 March 1707 – 20 June 1707
(3 months 6 days) |
20 June 1707 (aged 53)Agra,India |
8
|
Bahadur Shah I بهادر شاہ Shah Alam I |
Mirza Muhammad Mu'azzam
مرزا محمد معظم |
14 October 1643Burhanpur, India | 19 June 1707 – 27 February 1712
(4 years, 253 days) |
27 February 1712 (aged 68)Lahore, Pakistan |
9
|
Jahandar Shah جهاندار شاہ |
Muiz ud-Din Muhammad معز الدین محمد First Puppet King |
9 May 1661 Deccan, India | 27 February 1712 – 11 February 1713
(0 years, 350 days) |
12 February 1713 (aged 51)Delhi,India |
10
|
Farrukh Siyar فرخ سیر |
Muin al-Din Muhammad موئن الدین محمد Puppet King Under theSayyids of Barha |
20 August 1685Aurangabad, India | 11 January 1713 – 28 February 1719
(6 years, 48 days) |
19 April 1719 (aged 33)Delhi,India |
11
|
Rafi ud-Darajat رفیع الدرجات |
Shams al-Din Muhammad شمس الدین محمد Puppet King Under theSayyids of Barha |
1 December 1699 | 28 February 1719 – 6 June 1719
(0 years, 98 days) |
6 June 1719 (aged 19)Agra, India |
12
|
Shah Jahan II شاہ جهان دوم |
Rafi al-Din Muhammad رفع الدين محمد Puppet King Under theSayyids of Barha |
5 January 1696 | 6 June 1719 – 17 September 1719
(0 years, 105 days) |
18 September 1719 (aged 23)Agra, India |
13
|
Muhammad Shah محمد شاه |
Nasir al-Din Muhammad نصیر الدین محمد Puppet King Under theSayyids of Barha |
7 August 1702Ghazni,Afghanistan | 27 September 1719 – 26 April 1748
(28 years, 212 days) |
26 April 1748 (aged 45)Delhi,India |
14
|
Ahmad Shah Bahadur احمد شاہ بهادر |
Mujahid al-Din Muhammad مجاهد الدین محمد |
23 December 1725Delhi,India | 29 April 1748 – 2 June 1754
(6 years, 37 days) |
1 January 1775 (aged 49)Delhi,India |
15
|
Alamgir II عالمگیر دوم |
Aziz al-Din Muhammad عزیز اُلدین محمد |
6 June 1699Burhanpur, India | 3 June 1754 – 29 November 1759
(5 years, 180 days) |
29 November 1759 (aged 60) Kotla Fateh Shah, India |
16
|
Shah Jahan III شاه جهان سوم |
Muhi al-Millat محی الملت |
1711 | 10 December 1759 – 10 October 1760
(282 days) |
1772 (aged 60–61) |
17
|
Shah Alam II شاه عالم دوم |
Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar جلال الدین علی گوهر |
25 June 1728Delhi,India | 10 October 1760 – 31 July 1788
(27 years, 301 days) |
19 November 1806 (aged 78)Delhi,India |
18
|
Shah Jahan IV جهان شاه چهارم |
Bidar Bakht Mahmud Shah Bahadur Jahan Shah بیدار بخت محمود شاه بهادر جهان شاہ |
1749Delhi,India | 31 July 1788 – 11 October 1788
(63 days) |
1790 (aged 40–41)Delhi,India |
| 17
|
Shah Alam II شاه عالم دوم |
Jalal al-Din Muhammad Ali Gauhar جلال الدین علی گوهر Puppet King under theMaratha Empire |
25 June 1728Delhi,India | 16 October 1788 – 19 November 1806
(18 years, 339 days) |
19 November 1806 (aged 78)Delhi,India |
19
|
Akbar Shah II اکبر شاه دوم |
Muin al-Din Muhammad میرزا اکبر Puppet King under theEast India Company |
22 April 1760Mukundpur,India | 19 November 1806 – 28 September 1837
(30 years, 321 days) |
28 September 1837 (aged 77)Delhi,India |
20
|
Bahadur Shah II Zafar بهادر شاه ظفر |
Abu Zafar Siraj al-Din Muhammad ابو ظفر سراج اُلدین محمد |
24 October 1775Delhi,India | 28 September 1837 – 21 September 1857
(19 years, 360 days) |
7 November 1862 (aged 87)Rangoon, Myanmar |
Family tree of Mughal emperors
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See also
editReferences
editCitations
edit- ^Skyes, Percy.History of Afghanistan.
The Capture of Delhi and Agra — Baber himself entered Delhi unopposed and, on April 26, the khutba was read in the Great Mosque in his name with the title of "Emperor of Hindustan". Humayun was despatched to Agra where the fort was not immediately surrendered but was surrounded by his cavalry.
- ^The history of Hindustan: Volume 3.
The annuity was moderate to the lineal successor of Timur. He was, at the same time, guaranteed in the possession of the province of Allahabad; and thus a kind of provision was made for a prince, who retained nothing of what belonged to his illustrious ancestors, except the empty title of emperor of Hindustan.
- ^Wells, Herbert.The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind · Volume 3=.
he had but 25,000 men, provided, however, with guns, against a thousand elephants and four times as many men-the numbers, by the by, are his own estimate he gained a complete victory. He ceased to call himself King of Cabul, and assumed the title of Emperor of Hindustan.
- ^Jeroen Duindam (2015),Dynasties: A Global History of Power, 1300–1800,page 105Archived6 December 2022 at theWayback Machine,Cambridge University Press
- ^Mohammada, Malika (1 January 2007).The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India.Akkar Books. p. 300.ISBN978-8-189-83318-3.
- ^Dirk Collier (2016).The Great Mughals and their India.Hay House.p. 15.ISBN9789384544980.
- ^"The World Economy (GDP):Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison "Archived5 August 2019 at theWayback Machine.World Economy. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
- ^ Chandra, Satish.Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals.p. 202.
- ^Richards, John F. (1 January 2016).Johnson, Gordon;Bayly, C. A.(eds.).The Mughal Empire.The New Cambridge history of India: 1.5. Vol. I. The Mughals and their Contemporaries. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.pp. 1, 190.ISBN978-0521251198.
- ^Spear 1990,pp. 147–148
- ^abcdefghijklmnBerndl, Klaus (2005).National Geographic Visual History of the World.National Geographic Society. pp. 318–320.ISBN978-0-7922-3695-5.
- ^Keay, 293–296
- ^Keay, 309–311
- ^Keay, 311–319
- ^Eraly, AbrahamThe Mughal Throne:The Saga of India's Great Emperors,London: Phonenix, 2004 p. 520.
- ^Eraly, AbrahamThe Mughal Throne The Sage of India's Great Emperors,London: Phonenix, 2004 p. 191.
- ^"The great Aurangzeb is everybody's least favourite Mughal – Audrey Truschke | Aeon Essays".Aeon.Retrieved2 August2020.
- ^abcdefghijD'souza, Rohan "Crisis before the Fall: Some Speculations on the Decline of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals" pp. 3–30 fromSocial Scientist,Volume 30, Issue # 9/10, September–October 2002 p. 21.
- ^Keay, 361–363, 385–386
- ^abBose, Sugata;Jalal, Ayesha(2004).Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy(2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 41.ISBN978-0-203-71253-5.
- ^"The Mughal emperors in India",The Caliphate,Routledge, pp. 161–164, 18 November 2016,doi:10.4324/9781315443249-20,ISBN978-1-315-44324-9,retrieved7 January2023
Sources
edit- Keay, John,India, a History,2000, HarperCollins,ISBN0002557177
- Spear, Percival(1990) [First published 1965],A History of India, Volume 2,New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. Pp. 298,ISBN978-0-14-013836-8.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Country Studies.Federal Research Division.–IndiaArchived14 July 2012 atarchive.todayPakistanArchived29 June 2015 at theWayback Machine
Further reading
edit- Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra;Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1973).The History and Culture of the Indian People.Vol. VII: The Mughal Empire. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.