Musth

Musthormust(from Persian,lit. 'intoxicated') is a periodic condition in bull (male)elephantscharacterized byaggressive behaviorand accompanied by a large rise inreproductive hormones.It has been known inAsian elephantsfor 3000 years but was only described inAfrican elephantsin 1981. There is evidence that similar behaviour occurred in extinctproboscideanslikegomphotheresandmastodons.

Temporinsecretion during musth

A wildIndian elephantin musth

An elephant in musth digging itstusksinto the ground

An Asian elephant bull chained during musth, with discharge from the temporal glands.

Elephants in musth fighting each other

Elephants often discharge a thick, tar-like secretion calledtemporinfrom the temporal gland during musth. Behavioral management for captive bull elephants in musth includes physical restraint and astarvation dietfor several days to a week.

Etymology

Musth comes from anUrduterm for intoxication;in Persian it meanslit. 'intoxicated'.

Biology

Musth has been known inAsian elephantsfor 3000 years (described in theRigveda1500–1000 B.C.) but was recognized inAfrican elephantsonly in the late twentieth century.

In 1975, scientistsJoyce PooleandCynthia Mosswere working inAmboseli National Park,Kenya. Poole noticed a period of heightened reproductive activity and aggression in male African elephants. She began documenting and describing the physical and behavioral characteristics and temporal (time-related) dynamics among individual males. This led to scientifically identifying musth in African elephants.

An African elephant chases a giraffe during musth.

Musth is also suggested to have occurred inmammoths,given the testosterone histories from their tusks.Musth-like behaviour is also suggested to have occurred in South Americangomphotheresand North Americanmastodons.

Musth differs fromrutin that musth most often takes place in winter, whereas the female elephant'sestruscycle is not seasonally linked.

Physical characteristics

Elephants in musth often discharge a thick tar-like secretion calledtemporinfrom the temporal gland located on thetemporalsides of the head. Temporin containsproteins,lipids(includingcholesterol),phenoland4-methyl phenol,cresolsandsesquiterpenes(notablyfarnesoland its derivatives).Secretions andurinecollected from zoo elephants have been shown to contain elevated levels of various highly odorousketonesandaldehydes.

Testosteronelevels in an elephant in musth can be on average 60 times greater than in the same elephant at other times (in specific individuals these testosterone levels can even reach as much as 140 times the normal).Whether this hormonal surge is the sole cause of musth or merely a contributing factor is unknown.

Behavioral characteristics

Musth is believed to be linked tosexual arousalor establishingdominance,Wild bulls in musth often produce a characteristic low, pulsatingrumbling noiseknown as "musth rumble" which other elephants can hear from miles away. The rumble has been shown to prompt not only attraction in the form of reply vocalizations from cows in heat, but also silent avoidance behavior from other bulls, particularly juveniles and non-receptive females, suggesting an evolutionary benefit to advertising the musth state.

A bull elephant in musth, wild or otherwise, is extremely dangerous to humans, other elephants, and other species. Bull elephants in musth have killed keepers/mahouts,as well as other bull elephants, female elephants, and calves (the last usually inadvertently or accidentally).

In the 1990s, an episode of young bullrogue elephants,who had survived culls and translocation, raped and gored femalerhinosto death without provocation in twoSouth Africannational parks was attributed to an aberrant form of musth. After being rebuffed by older female elephants, they went after the femalewhite rhinos,an endangered species, the largest available pachyderm in the neighborhood, raping and killing them. Estimates of the dead rhinos ranged from 36 to 63. Of the 15-18 young bull elephants in the control group, three were reportedly shot. Some scientists opined that this was an example of young male elephants permanently changed by the trauma of witnessing their breeding herds culled due to overcrowding. The survivors had been spared themselves due to their age and size although herd culls are properly done in entirety, i.e. leaving no survivors to suffer the equivalents of PTSD, survivor guilt, and other disorders or traumas later in life which can then create or exacerbate human-elephant conflicts or other forms of violence, according to Ron Thomson, a late 20th-century Zimbabwe game warden and Parks Board veteran.In the absence of older males whose presence inhibits musth in smaller younger bulls, these adolescent bulls had reached puberty (musth) prematurely which they could not control,resulting in the "warped behavior of animals who have lost their elders, and who are now flailing in a diminished, disarranged world." It is established that functionally important decision-making abilities may be significantly altered by disruption of the natural structure of kin-based social relationships and that violent disruption "appears capable of driving aberrant behaviours in social animals that are akin to thepost-traumatic stress disorderexperienced by humans following extremely traumatic events "due to the pachyderms' advanced intelligence, sentience, intense family relationships, and prodigious memories.

Another interrelated but more generalized theory of why the young elephants went wild was that, owing to culls and herd fragmentation, there were no older elephants to teach and discipline them.

South African ecologist and rangerGus van Dyk,who thought of the idea of reintroducing older males into the parks to prevent younger males from entering musth, noted that no further rhinoceros killings were observed.

Management

An elephant in musth trying to break his chain

InSri LankaandIndia,domesticated Asian elephants in musth are traditionally tied to a strong tree and denied food and water or put on astarvation dietfrom several days to a week which shortens the duration of the musth, typically to five to eight days. Sedatives, likexylazine,are also sometimes used.Zoos keeping adult male elephants need strong, purpose-built enclosures to isolate males during their musth, which greatly complicates attempts tobreed elephantsin zoos.

In popular culture

• Valmiki, inSundara Kandaof the Ramayana (7th to 4th centuries BCE), made reference to theMahendramountain shedding water like an elephant's rut juice upon being pressed by Hanuman.

• In theMatanga Lila(300 BCE to 300 CE) musth is described with "Excitement, swiftness, odor, love passion, complete florescence of the body, wrath, prowess, and fearlessness are declared to be the eight excellences of musth.".

• Sangam poetry(300 BCE to 300 CE) describes musth. Kummatoor Kannanaar in Pathitrupatthu 12 describes it as follows:

It was sweet to hear of your victories and fame and I came here desiring to see you. I came with my big family, passing few mountains where noble, young male elephants with coarse hair
and swaying walks have musth flowing from their
cheek glands and elephant mothers with calves wave wild jasmine twigs, chasing striped bees that swarm on the sweet musth.

• References to elephants in musth (whosetemporinsecretion is often referred to as "ichor") are for example in theRaghuvaṃśa(4th–5th century CE), wherKalidasawrote that the king's elephants drip ichor in seven streams to match the scent put forth by the seven-leaved 'sapta-cchada' (= "seven-leaf" ) tree (perhapsAlstonia scholaris).

• InJules Verne'sAround the World in Eighty Days(1872),Phileas Foggbuys an elephant which was being fed sugar and butter so it would go into musth for combat purposes; however, the animal had been on this regimen only for a relatively short time so the condition has not yet presented.

• Shooting an Elephantis an autobiographical account byGeorge Orwellwritten in 1936, in which he describes how an elephant inBurmahad an attack of musth and killed an Indian, which in turn led to the shooting of the elephant.

• In hisJames BondnovelThe Man With the Golden Gun(1965),Ian Flemingwrote that the villainFrancisco Scaramangawas driven to become a cold-blooded assassin after authorities shot an elephant that he had ridden in his circus act because the elephant went on a rampage while in musth.

• The Tamil movieKumki(2012), which revolves around amahoutand his trained elephant, shows the elephant in musth towards the climax. Captive elephants are either trained for duties in temples and cultural festivals or trained as akumki elephantwhich confronts wild elephants and prevents them from entering villages. Elephants trained for temple duties are of a gentle nature and cannot face wild elephants. In this movie, a tribal village wants to hire a kumki elephant to chase away wild elephants which enter the village every harvest season. The mahout, who needs money, takes his temple-trained elephant to do this job, in the vain hope that wild elephants will not come in. But wild elephants start attacking the village on the harvest day. The temple-trained elephant enters musth and thus fights with the wild elephants, kills the most notorious among the herd but dies from injuries sustained during the fight.

External links

• Musth of the elephant bulls
• Transport and Maintenance of Musth in ElephantsArchived2012-02-20 at theWayback Machine