Wikipedia

NORAD

For other uses, seeNORAD (disambiguation).

North American Aerospace Defense Command(NORAD/ˈnɔːræd/;French:Commandement de la Défense Aérospatiale de l'Amérique du Nord,CDAAN), known until March 1981 as theNorth American Air Defense Command,is acombined organizationof theUnited StatesandCanadathat provides aerospace warning, air sovereignty, and protection for Canada and thecontinental United States.[4]

North American Aerospace Defense Command
Commandement de la défense aérospatiale de l'Amérique du Nord
Crest of North American Aerospace Defense Command
Founded12 May 1958
(66 years, 9 months)[1]
CountriesCanada
United States
TypeBinational Command
RoleConducting aerospace warning, aerospace control and maritime warning in the defense of North America.[2]
HeadquartersPeterson Space Force Base,Colorado Springs,Colorado, U.S.
Motto(s)We Have the Watch
Emblem ColorsBlue

Turquoise

Yellow
Websitenorad.mil
Commanders
CommanderGenGregory M. Guillot,USAF[3]
Deputy CommanderLGenBlaise F. Frawley,RCAF
Vice Commander, U.S. ElementLTGThomas Carden,USA
Command Senior Enlisted LeaderCMSgtJohn G. Storms,USAF
A map of NORAD regions and sectors

Headquarters for NORAD and the NORAD/United States Northern Command(USNORTHCOM) center are located atPeterson Space Force BaseinEl Paso County,nearColorado Springs, Colorado.The nearbyCheyenne Mountain Complexhas the Alternate Command Center. TheNORAD commander and deputy commanderare, respectively, aUnited States four-star generalor equivalent and aCanadian lieutenant-generalor equivalent.

Command

edit

NORAD is headed by itscommander,who is afour-stargeneraloradmiralin theUnited States Armed Forces.The deputy commander is aRoyal Canadian Air Forcelieutenant general.Prior to the 1968 unification of theCanadian Forces,the deputy commander was an RCAFair marshal.[5]

The commander is responsible to theGovernment of Canada(theCrown-in-Council), through thechief of the Defence Staff,and to theGovernment of the United States,via thechairman of the joint chiefs of staff.The commander and deputy are each subject to their respective country's laws, policies, and directives.[6]Per the CanadianNational Defence Act,the chief of the Defence Staff relays orders from the Crown-in-Council, collectively, or guidance from theminister of national defence,alone, to the officers of theCanadian Armed Forces.[7]

Regions

edit

NORAD maintains a headquarters atPeterson Space Force BasenearColorado Springs, Colorado.The NORAD andUSNORTHCOMCommand Center at Peterson SFB serves as a central collection and coordination facility for a worldwide system of sensors designed to provide the commander and the leadership of Canada and the U.S. with an accurate picture of any aerospace or maritime threat.[8]NORAD has administratively divided the North American landmass into three regions:

Both the CONR and CANR regions are divided into eastern and western sectors.

Alaskan

edit

TheAlaskan NORAD Region(ANR) maintains continuous capability to detect, validate and warn off any atmospheric threat in its area of operations from its Regional Operations Control Center (ROCC) atJoint Base Elmendorf–Richardson,Alaska.

ANR maintains the readiness to conduct a continuum of aerospace control missions, which include daily air sovereignty in peacetime, contingency and deterrence in time of tension, and active air defense against manned and unmanned air-breathing atmospheric vehicles in times of crisis.

ANR is supported by both active duty and reserve units. Active duty forces are provided by 11 AF and theCanadian Armed Forces(CAF), and reserve forces provided by theAlaska Air National Guard.Both 11 AF and the CAF provide active duty personnel to the ROCC to maintain continuous surveillance of Alaskan airspace.

Canadian

edit

Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters is atCFB Winnipeg,Manitoba. It was established on 22 April 1983.[9]It is responsible for providing surveillance and control of Canadian airspace. TheRoyal Canadian Air Forceprovides alert assets to NORAD. CANR is divided into two sectors, the Canada East Sector and Canada West Sector. Both Sector Operations Control Centers (SOCCs) are co-located atCFB North Bay,Ontario. The routine operation of the SOCCs includes reporting track data, sensor status and aircraft alert status to NORAD headquarters. In 1996, CANR was renamed1 Canadian Air Divisionand moved toCFB Winnipeg.

Canadian air defense forces assigned to NORAD include409 Tactical Fighter SquadronatCFB Cold Lake,Alberta and425 Tactical Fighter SquadronatCFB Bagotville,Quebec. All squadrons fly theMcDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornetfighter aircraft.[10]

To monitor for drug trafficking, the Canadian NORAD Region monitors all air traffic approaching the coast of Canada, in cooperation with theRoyal Canadian Mounted Policeand the United States drug law enforcement agencies.[11]Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan may be directed to land and be inspected by RCMP andCanada Border Services Agency.

Continental U.S.

edit

TheContinental NORAD Region(CONR) is the component of NORAD that provides airspace surveillance and control and directs air sovereignty activities for theContiguous United States(CONUS). Since the terrorist attacks ofSeptember 11, 2001,CONR has been the lead agency forOperation Noble Eagle,an ongoing mission to protect the continental United States from airborne attacks.[12]

CONR is the NORAD designation of the United States Air ForceFirst Air Force/AFNORTH. Its headquarters is located atTyndall Air Force Base,Florida. The First Air Force (1 AF) became responsible for the USAF air defense mission in September 1990. AFNORTH is the United States Air Force component ofUnited States Northern Command(NORTHCOM).

1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH comprisesAir National GuardFighter Wings assigned an air defense mission to 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH on federal orders, made up primarily of citizen Airmen. The primary weapons systems are theMcDonnell Douglas F-15 EagleandGeneral Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falconaircraft.

It plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and ensures air sovereignty and provides for the unilateral defense of the United States. A combined First Air Force command post is at Tyndall Air Force Base. The US East ROCC (Eastern Air Defense Sector), Sector Operations Control Center (SOCC) is atRome, New York.The US West ROCC (Western Air Defense Sector) control center is atMcChord Field,Washington. Both maintain continuous surveillance of CONUS airspace.

In its role as the CONUS NORAD Region, 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH also performs counter-drug surveillance operations.

History

edit

The North American Air Defense Command was recommended by the Joint Canadian–U.S. Military Group in late 1956, approved by the U.S.Joint Chiefs of Staffin February 1957, and announced in August 1957.[13]NORAD's command headquarters was established on 12 September 1957 atEnt Air Force Base's 1954 blockhouse.[14]In 1958, Canada and the United States agreed that the NORAD commander would always be a United States officer, with a Canadian vice commander. Canada "agreed the command's primary purpose would be... early warning and defense for theStrategic Air Command's (SAC)'s retaliatory forces ".[15]: 252 

In late 1958, Canada and the United States started theContinental Air Defense Integration North(CADIN) for theSemi-Automatic Ground Environmentair defense network.[15]: 253 The initial CADIN cost-sharing agreement between the two countries was signed in January 1959. Two December 1958 plans submitted by NORAD had "average yearly expenditure of around five and one half billions", including "cost of the accelerated Nike Zeus program" and threeBallistic Missile Early Warning System(BMEWS) sites.[16]

The 25-ton Northblast doorin theCheyenne Mountain nuclear bunkeris the main entrance to another blast door in the background, beyond which the side tunnel branches into access tunnels to the main chambers.

Canada's NORAD bunker atCFB North Baywith a SAGEAN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Centralcomputer was constructed from 1959 to 1963. Each of the USAF's eight smallerAN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Centralsystems provided NORAD with data and could command the entire United States air defense. The RCAF's 1950 "ground observer system, theLong Range Air Raid Warning System",was discontinued.[17]In January 1959, the United StatesGround Observer Corpswas deactivated.[15]: 222 

The Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker's planned mission was expanded in August 1960 to "a hardened center from which CINCNORAD would supervise and direct operationsagainst space attackas well as air attack ".[18]In October 1960, the Secretary of Defense assigned, "operational command of all space surveillance toContinental Air Defense Command(CONAD) and operational control to North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) ".[19]

In December 1960, theJoint Chiefs of Staff(JCS) placed the Ent Air Force BaseSpace Detection and Tracking System(496L System withPhilco2000 Model 212 computer)[20]"under the operational control of CINCNORAD",[21]during the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker excavation, and the joint SAC-NORAD exercise "Sky ShieldII ". In September 1962—" Sky Shield III "were conducted for mock penetration of NORAD sectors.[22]

In 1963, NORAD command center operations moved from Ent Air Force Base to the partially underground "Combined Operations Center" forAerospace Defense Commandand NORAD at theChidlaw Building.[23]PresidentJohn F. Kennedyvisited "NORAD headquarters" after the 5 June 1963United States Air Force Academygraduation. On 30 October 1964, "NORAD began manning" the Combat Operations Center in theCheyenne Mountain Complex.[21]

In 1965, about 250,000 United States and Canadian personnel were involved in the operation of NORAD,[failed verification][24]On 1 January 1966,Air Force Systems Commandturned the COC over to NORAD.[25]The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex was accepted on 8 February 1966.[21]: 319 

1968 reorganization

edit

United States Department of Defenserealignments for the NORAD command organization began on 15 November 1968 (e.g.,Army Air Defense Command(ARADCOM)).[26]By 1972, there were eight NORAD "regional areas... for all air defense".[27]The NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex Improvements Program (427M System)[25]became operational in 1979.[28]

False alarms

edit

On at least three occasions, NORAD systems failed, such as on 9 November 1979, when a technician in NORAD loaded a test tape, but failed to switch the system status to "test", causing a stream of constant false warnings to spread to two "continuity of government"bunkers as well as command posts worldwide.[29]On 3 June 1980, and again on 6 June 1980, acomputer communicationsdevice failure caused warning messages to sporadically flash in U.S. Air Force command posts around the world that anuclear attackwas taking place.[30]

During these incidents,Pacific Air Forces(PACAF) properly had their planes loaded with nuclear bombs in the air.Strategic Air Command(SAC) did not and received criticism,[by whom?]because they did not follow procedure, even though the SAC command knew these were almost certainlyfalse alarms,as did PACAF.[citation needed]Both command posts had recently begun receiving and processing direct reports from the various radar, satellite, and other missile attack detection systems, and those direct reports simply did not match the erroneous data received from NORAD.[citation needed]

1980 reorganization

edit
TheNorth Warning Systemas envisioned by Canada and the US in 1987

Following the 1979 Joint US-Canada Air Defense Study, the command structure for aerospace defense was changed, e.g., "SAC assumed control ofballistic missile warning and space surveillance facilities"on 1 December 1979 from ADCOM.[31]: 48 The Aerospace Defense Command major command ended 31 March 1980. Its organizations in Cheyenne Mountain became the "ADCOM"specifiedcommand under the same commander as NORAD,[23]e.g., HQ NORAD/ADCOM J31 manned the Space Surveillance Center.

In 1982, a NORAD Off-site Test Facility[32]called the Test and Development Facility (TDF) was located at Peterson AFB.[33]TheDEW Linewas to be replaced with theNorth Warning System(NWS), theOver-the-Horizon Backscatter(OTH-B) radar was to be deployed, more advanced fighters were deployed, and E-3 SentryAWACS aircraftwere planned for greater use. These recommendations were accepted by the governments in 1985. The United States Space Command was formed in September 1985 as an adjunct, but not a component of NORAD.

NORAD was renamedNorth American Aerospace Defense Commandin March 1981.

Post–Cold War

edit

In 1989, NORAD operations expanded to cover counter-drug operations, for example, tracking of small aircraft entering and operating within the United States and Canada.[34]DEW line sites were replaced between 1986 and 1995 by the North Warning System. The Cheyenne Mountain site was upgraded, but none of the proposedOTH-Bradars are currently in operation.

After theSeptember 11 attacks,the NORAD Air Warning Center's mission included the interior airspace of North America.[35]

The Cheyenne Mountain Realignment[36]was announced in July 2006, to consolidate NORAD's day-to-day operations atPeterson Air Force Base.[37]Cheyenne Mountain remains on "warm standby", staffed with support personnel.

Former NORAD Regions/Sectors
1966 1967 1968 1969 1970–1983 1984 1985–1986 1987 1988–1990 1991–1992 1993–1995 1996–2005 2006–2009
20th Air Division 1966–1967 1969–1983
21st Air Division 1966–1967 1969–1983
22nd Air Division 1966–1987
23rd Air Division 1969–1987
24th Air Division 1969–1990
25th Air Division 1966–1990
26th Air Division 1966–1990
27th Air Division 1966–1969
28th Air Division 1966–1969 1985–1992
29th Air Division 1966–1969
30th Air Division 1966–1968
31st Air Division 1966–1969
32nd Air Division 1966–1969
34th Air Division 1966–1969
35th Air Division 1966–1969
36th Air Division 1966–1969
Western Air Defense Sector(WADS) 1987–1995
Eastern Air Defense Sector(EADS) 1987–2009
Southeast Air Defense Sector(SEADS) 1987–2005
Southwest Air Defense Sector(SWADS) 1987–1995
edit
A 1955Searsad with the misprinted telephone number that led to the NORAD Tracks Santa Program.[38][39]NORAD Tracks SantafollowsSanta Claus' Christmas Eve journey around the world.[40]The service has expanded to various internet platforms and can be accessed seasonally by phone at: 1-877-HI-NORAD (multilingual)[41]

In film and television

edit

The NORAD command center located underCheyenne Mountain,Colorado is a setting of the 1983 filmWarGamesand the television seriesJeremiahandStargate SG-1.In the 2014 filmInterstellar,NORAD dissolves and its headquarters is converted forNASA.[42]The 1970 movie,Colossus:The Forbin Projectis largely based on NORAD.

In season 25 episode 4 of the TV seriesSouth Park,NORAD is hacked into by Mr Mackey using late 1980s computer hardware.[43]

Santa tracker

edit
Main article:NORAD Tracks Santa

As a publicity move on 24 December 1955, NORAD's predecessor, the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD), informed the press that CONAD was trackingSanta Claus'ssleigh,adding that "CONAD,Army,NavyandMarineAir Forces will continue to track and guard Santa and his sleigh on his trip to and from the U.S. against possible attack from those who do not believe in Christmas ". A Christmas Eve tradition was born,[44]known as the "NORAD Tracks Santa"program. Every year onChristmas Eve,"NORAD Tracks Santa" purports to track Santa Claus as he leaves theNorth Poleand delivers presents to children around the world. Today, NORAD relies on volunteers to make the program possible.[45]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^"NORAD Agreement".North American Aerospace Defense Command.
  2. ^"North American Aerospace Defense Command".
  3. ^"Leadership".www.norad.mil.
  4. ^"NORAD – Fact Sheet".Archived fromthe originalon 1 November 2013.
  5. ^Veale, Thomas F. (2008).Guarding What You Value Most: North American Aerospace Defense Command, Celebrating 50 Years.Government Printing Office. p. 49.ISBN978-0-16-080436-6.
  6. ^Government of Canada (28 April 2006), "Article II - Governing Principles",Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on the North American Aerospace Defense Command,King's Printer for Canada,retrieved13 February2023
  7. ^Elizabeth II (1985), "18(2)",National Defence Act,King's Printer for Canada,retrieved13 February2023
  8. ^"NORAD.mil:Organizational History".Archived fromthe originalon 9 May 2013.
  9. ^"p. 41".
  10. ^"Canada's CF-18 Hornets".CBC News.21 March 2011.
  11. ^"CBC Archives".10 April 2013.
  12. ^"Continental U.S. NORAD Region".North American Aerospace Defense Command.Retrieved17 May2022.
  13. ^Sturm, Thomas A. (January 1965). Command and Control for North American Air Defense, 1959–1963 (Report). Liaison Office, USAF History Division. pp.14–7.(cited by Schaffel p. 251 & 315)
  14. ^McMullen, Richard F. (1965). Command and Control Planning, 1958–1965 (Report). pp.1–2.(cited by Schaffel p. 252 & 315)
  15. ^abcSchaffel, Kenneth (1991).Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945–1960(45MBPDF).General Histories(Report). Office of Air Force History.ISBN0-912799-60-9.Retrieved26 September2011.
  16. ^1959 Jul–Dec NORAD/CONAD Historical Summary
  17. ^Canadian Long Range Early Warning(letter to HQWADF),CONAC,16 October 1950 (cited by Schaffel p. 138 & 304)
  18. ^titletbd(Report).Air Research and Development Command.(cited by Schaffel, p. 262)
  19. ^Sturdevant, Rick W (1995). "Chapter 7: The United States Air Force Organizes for Space: The Operational Quest". In Launius, Roger D (ed.). Organizing for the Use of Space: Historical Perspectives on a Persistent Issue (Report). AAS History Series. Vol. 18. Univelt for theAmerican Astronautical Society.ISSN0730-3564.
  20. ^Weeden, Brian C; Cefola, Paul J.Computer Systems and Algorithms for Space Situational Awareness: History and Future Development(PDF)(Report).SWFound.org.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved2 September2012.
  21. ^abcLeonard, Barry (2011).History of Strategic and Ballistic Missile Defense: Volume II: 1956–1972.DIANE.ISBN9781437921311.Retrieved10 February2023.The missile and space surveillance and warning system currently [1972] consists of five systems and a space computational center located in the NORAD Cheyenne Mountain complex. The five systems are: the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System; the Defense Support Program (DSP) formerly called Project 647; the Forward Scatter over the Horizon Radar (440L AN/FRT-80 transmitter, AN/FSQ-76 receiver) system; the Sea-Launched Ballistic Missile Warning System; and the Space Detection and Tracking System.... In July 1961, the National Space Surveillance and Control Center (NSSCC) was discontinued as the new SPADATS Center became operational at Ent Air Force Base, Colorado. Officially, this marked the beginning of aerospace operations by CINCNORAD.
  22. ^"p. 17, PDF"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 21 September 2013.Retrieved10 September2012.
  23. ^ab"NORAD Chronology".NORAD.mil.Retrieved28 July2012.(see alsoFAS.org chronology)
  24. ^Renuart, Victor E. Jr. (2009)."The Enduring Value of NORAD".Joint Force Quarterly.54:92–6.
  25. ^abDel Papa, Dr. E. Michael; Warner, Mary P (October 1987).A Historical Chronology of the Electronic Systems Division 1947–1986(PDF)(Report).Archived(PDF)from the original on 24 December 2013.Retrieved19 July2012.McNamara…reasoned that Soviet missiles could eliminate air defense systems in a first strike... the policy that emerged [sic] embraced the most extreme option: massive retaliation, popularly referred to... asmutual assured destruction(MAD).... 1966…NORAD... Combat Operations Center... integrated several distinct systems into a single workable unit to provide the NORAD Commander with the necessary information and control to perform his mission.... the Space Defense Center combiningthe Air Force's Space Trackand theNavy's Spasur.
  26. ^Upper Reservation of Fort Mac Arthur Historic District(PDF)(Report).Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.On November 15, 1968, as part of the internal reorganization of the Army Air Defense Command (ARADCOM), the 47th Artillery Brigade was transferred east. the Army Air Defense command at Fort MacArthur became the 19th Artillery Group (Air Defense). This change was made to align ARADCOM units in accordance with a reorganization of the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD).
  27. ^"Chapter 1: Air Defense Doctrine and Procedures".U.S. Army Air Defense Digest, 1972.Hillman Hall,Fort Bliss,Texas. 1972. North American Air Defense Command.Retrieved19 September2012.Currently, the North American Continent is divided into eight regional areas (fig 2) of air defense responsibility· Each region commander is responsible to CINCNORAD for all air defense activity within his designated area.… The average number of unknowns in the system has steadily declined over the years until now the number is approximately 40 per month.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ^"Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade (CMU)".FY97 DOT&E Annual Report(webpage transcription of chapter)(Report).Retrieved9 September2012.CMU also upgrades and provides new capability to survivable communication and warning elements at the National Military Command Center (NMCC), U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM), and other forward user locations. CMU additionally provides at Offutt, AFB an austere backup to Cheyenne Mountain ballistic missile warning.… Granite Sentry provides a Message Processing Subsystem and a Video Distribution Subsystem, and it upgrades the NORAD Computer System display capability and four major centers: (1) the Air Defense Operations Center, (2) the NORAD Command Center, (3) the Battle Staff Support Center, and (4) the Weather Support Unit. Granite Sentry also processes and displays nuclear detection data provided from the Integrated Correlation and Display System.
  29. ^"The 3am Phone Call: False Warnings of Soviet Missile Attacks during 1979–80 Led to Alert Actions for U.S. Strategic Forces".National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 371.Washington D.C.: National Security Archive, George Washington University. 1 March 2012.
  30. ^"NORAD's Missile Warning System: What Went Wrong? (MASAD-81-30)"(PDF).U.S. Government Accountability Office. 15 May 1981.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved3 November2010.
    "Attack Warning: Better Management Required to Resolve NORAD Integration Deficiencies (IMTEC-89-26)"(PDF).U.S. Government Accountability Office. 7 July 1989.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved3 November2010.
  31. ^Winkler, David F; Webster, Julie L (June 1997).Searching the Skies: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Defense Radar Program(Report). U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories. Archived fromthe originalon 1 December 2012.Retrieved26 March2012.
  32. ^"Brigadier General David A. Cotton".U.S. Air Force. Archived fromthe originalon 12 December 2012.Retrieved17 December2012.
  33. ^"Attack Warning. Costs to Modernize NORAD's Computer System Significantly Understated"(PDF).gao.justia.com.1991.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
  34. ^"Cheyenne Mountain Complex - United States Nuclear Forces".nuke.fas.org.
  35. ^"Cheyenne Mountain Complex".NORAD Public Affairs. AWC [Air Warning Center]. Archived fromthe originalon 5 October 2012.Retrieved9 September2012.
  36. ^D'Agostino, Davi M (21 May 2007).Defense Infrastructure: Full Costs and Security Implications of Cheyenne Mountain Realignment Have Not Been Determined [GAO—07-803R](PDF)(Report).United States General Accounting Office.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved9 September2012.
  37. ^Kirk Johnson (29 July 2006)."After 4 Decades, a Cold War Symbol Stands Down".The New York Times.Retrieved31 December2009.
  38. ^"North American Aerospace Defense Command – NORAD Tracks Santa".NORAD.Retrieved13 May2014.
  39. ^"Eastern Air Defense Sector to Track Santa Claus on Christmas Eve: New York Air Guardsman Once Again Will Help NORAD Track Santa"(Press release). New York State Division of Military and Naval Affairs. 24 December 2013.Retrieved13 May2014.
  40. ^Pellerin, Cheryl."NORAD Gears Up to Track Santa Claus".Informatics.Scientific Computing.Retrieved8 December2011.
  41. ^"NORAD Tracks Santa".North American Aerospace Defense Command.Retrieved12 February2023.
  42. ^Mitchell, Ben."From 'War Games' to 'Interstellar': NORAD's bunker is a film favorite".USA TODAY.Retrieved8 December2021.
  43. ^"'South Park's Mr. Mackay Preps For Nuclear Attack In 'Back To The Cold War' Clip – Deadline ".2 March 2022. Archived fromthe originalon 2 March 2022.Retrieved10 June2022.
  44. ^Appelbaum, Yoni (24 December 2015)."Where Does NORAD's Santa Tracker Really Come From?".theatlantic.com.
  45. ^"NORAD Tracks Santa".NORAD.mil.Archived fromthe originalon 24 December 2009.

Further reading

edit
  • Andrea Charron, James Fergusson:NORAD: In Perpetuity and Beyond.McGill-Queen's/Brian Mulroney Institute of Government Studies in Leadership, Public Policy, and Governance. McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal 2022. ISBN 978-0-2280-1400-3.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NORAD&oldid=1269056173"