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Neuroscience

(Redirected fromNeurobiology)
For the journal, seeNeuroscience(journal).
"Brain science" redirects here. For other aspects of brain science, seecognitive science,cognitive psychology,neurology,andneuropsychology.

Neuroscienceis thescientific studyof thenervous system(thebrain,spinal cord,andperipheral nervous system), its functions, and its disorders.[1][2][3]It is amultidisciplinaryscience that combinesphysiology,anatomy,molecular biology,developmental biology,cytology,psychology,physics,computer science,chemistry,medicine,statistics,andmathematical modelingto understand the fundamental and emergent properties ofneurons,gliaandneural circuits.[4][5][6][7][8]The understanding of the biological basis oflearning,memory,behavior,perception,andconsciousnesshas been described byEric Kandelas the "epic challenge" of thebiological sciences.[9]

Drawing bySantiago Ramón y Cajal(1899) ofneuronsin the pigeon cerebellum

The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales. The techniques used byneuroscientistshave expanded enormously, from molecular andcellularstudies of individual neurons toimagingofsensory,motorandcognitivetasks in the brain.

History

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Main article:History of neuroscience
Illustration fromGray's Anatomy(1918) of a lateral view of thehuman brain,featuring thehippocampusamong other neuroanatomical features

The earliest study of the nervous system dates toancient Egypt.Trepanation,the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into theskullfor the purpose of curing head injuries ormental disorders,or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during theNeolithicperiod. Manuscripts dating to1700 BCindicate that theEgyptianshad some knowledge about symptoms ofbrain damage.[10]

Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. InEgypt,from the lateMiddle Kingdomonwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation formummification.It was believed at the time that theheartwas the seat of intelligence. According toHerodotus,the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while theskullis cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs. "[11]

The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of theGreekphysicianHippocrates.He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence.[12]Platoalso speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.[13]Aristotle,however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.[14]This view was generally accepted until theRomanphysicianGalen,a follower of Hippocrates and physician toRoman gladiators,observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.[15]

Abulcasis,Averroes,Avicenna,Avenzoar,andMaimonides,active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. InRenaissance Europe,Vesalius(1514–1564),René Descartes(1596–1650),Thomas Willis(1621–1675) andJan Swammerdam(1637–1680) also made several contributions to neuroscience.

TheGolgi stainfirst allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.

Luigi Galvani's pioneering work in the late 1700s set the stage for studying theelectrical excitabilityof muscles and neurons. In 1843Emil du Bois-Reymonddemonstrated the electrical nature of the nerve signal,[16]whose speedHermann von Helmholtzproceeded to measure,[17]and in 1875Richard Catonfound electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.[18]Adolf Beckpublished in 1890 similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs.[19]Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of themicroscopeand the development of astaining procedurebyCamillo Golgiduring the late 1890s. The procedure used asilver chromatesalt to reveal the intricate structures of individualneurons.His technique was used bySantiago Ramón y Cajaland led to the formation of theneuron doctrine,the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.[20]Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared theNobel Prize in Physiology or Medicinein 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain.

In parallel with this research, in 1815Jean Pierre Flourensinduced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Work with brain-damaged patients byMarc Daxin 1836 andPaul Brocain 1865 suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, these findings were seen as a confirmation ofFranz Joseph Gall's theory that language was localized and that certainpsychological functionswere localized in specific areas of thecerebral cortex.[21][22]Thelocalization of functionhypothesis was supported by observations ofepilepticpatients conducted byJohn Hughlings Jackson,who correctly inferred the organization of themotor cortexby watching the progression of seizures through the body.Carl Wernickefurther developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research throughneuroimagingtechniques, still uses theBrodmanncerebral cytoarchitectonic map(referring to the study ofcell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.[23]

During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines.Eric Kandeland collaborators have citedDavid Rioch,Francis O. Schmitt,andStephen Kuffleras having played critical roles in establishing the field.[24]Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at theWalter Reed Army Institute of Research,starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology,bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine byJames L. McGaugh.[25]This was followed by theDepartment of NeurobiologyatHarvard Medical School,which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler.[26]

3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at theNatural History Museum, London

In the process of treatingepilepsy,Wilder Penfieldproduced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain.[27][28]He summarized his findings in a 1950 book calledThe Cerebral Cortex of Man.[29]Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of thecortical homunculus.[30]

The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952,Alan Lloyd HodgkinandAndrew Huxleypresented amathematical modelfor the transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "action potentials",and how they are initiated and propagated, known as theHodgkin–Huxley model.In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called theFitzHugh–Nagumo model.In 1962,Bernard Katzmodeledneurotransmissionacross the space between neurons known assynapses.Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage inAplysia.In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in theMorris–Lecar model.Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerousbiological neuron modelsandmodels of neural computation.

As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists during the 20th century. For example, theInternational Brain Research Organizationwas founded in 1961,[31]theInternational Society for Neurochemistryin 1963,[32]theEuropean Brain and Behaviour Societyin 1968,[33]and theSociety for Neurosciencein 1969.[34]Recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise toapplied disciplinesasneuroeconomics,[35]neuroeducation,[36]neuroethics,[37]andneurolaw.[38]

Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on neural implants and brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.[39]

Modern neuroscience

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Main article:Outline of neuroscience
Human nervous system

Thescientific studyof the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances inmolecular biology,electrophysiology,andcomputational neuroscience.This has allowed neuroscientists to study thenervous systemin all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed.

For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a singleneuron.Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions calledsynapses,at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament ofaxoplasmcalled anaxon,which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervoussystememerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other inneural circuits,andnetworks.

The vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: thecentral nervous system(defined as thebrainandspinal cord), and theperipheral nervous system.In many species—including all vertebrates—the nervous system is the mostcomplex organ systemin the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. Thehuman brainalone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.[40]

Due to the high degree ofplasticityof the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.[41]

Making sense of the nervous system's dynamic complexity is a formidable research challenge. Ultimately, neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. Analysis of the nervous system is therefore performed at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. The specific topics that form the main focus of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments inelectron microscopy,computer science,electronics,functional neuroimaging,andgeneticsandgenomicshave all been major drivers of progress.

Advances in the classification ofbrain cellshave been enabled by electrophysiological recording,single-cell genetic sequencing,and high-quality microscopy, which have combined into a single method pipeline calledpatch-sequencingin which all three methods are simultaneously applied using miniature tools.[42]The efficiency of this method and the large amounts of data that is generated has allowed researchers to make some general conclusions about cell types; for example that the human and mouse brain have different versions of fundamentally the same cell types.[43]

Molecular and cellular neuroscience

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Main articles:Molecular neuroscienceandCellular neuroscience
Photograph of astained neuronin a chicken embryo

Basic questions addressed inmolecular neuroscienceinclude the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and howaxonsform complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools frommolecular biologyandgeneticsare used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions.[44]Themorphology,molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.[45]

Questions addressed incellular neuroscienceinclude the mechanisms of how neurons processsignalsphysiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites and somas and howneurotransmittersand electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Neurites are thin extensions from a neuronalcell body,consisting ofdendrites(specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) andaxons(specialized to conduct nerve impulses calledaction potentials). Somas are the cell bodies of the neurons and contain the nucleus.[46]

Another major area of cellular neuroscience is the investigation of thedevelopment of the nervous system.[47]Questions include thepatterning and regionalizationof the nervous system, axonal and dendritic development,trophic interactions,synapse formationand the implication offractonesinneural stem cells,[48][49]differentiationof neurons and glia (neurogenesisandgliogenesis), andneuronal migration.[50]

Computational neurogenetic modelingis concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes, on the cellular level (Computational Neurogenetic Modeling (CNGM) can also be used to model neural systems).[51]

Neural circuits and systems

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Main articles:Neural circuitandSystems neuroscience
Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013).

Systems neuroscienceresearch centers on the structural and functional architecture of the developing human brain, and the functions oflarge-scale brain networks,or functionally-connected systems within the brain. Alongside brain development, systems neuroscience also focuses on how the structure and function of the brain enables or restricts the processing of sensory information, using learnedmental modelsof the world, to motivate behavior.

Questions in systems neuroscience include howneural circuitsare formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such asreflexes,multisensory integration,motor coordination,circadian rhythms,emotional responses,learning,andmemory.[52]In other words, this area of research studies how connections are made and morphed in the brain, and the effect it has on human sensation, movement, attention, inhibitory control, decision-making, reasoning, memory formation, reward, and emotion regulation.[53]

Specific areas of interest for the field include observations of how the structure of neural circuits effect skill acquisition, how specialized regions of the brain develop and change (neuroplasticity), and the development of brain atlases, or wiring diagrams of individual developing brains.[54]

The related fields ofneuroethologyandneuropsychologyaddress the question of how neural substrates underlie specificanimalandhumanbehaviors.[55]Neuroendocrinologyandpsychoneuroimmunologyexamine interactions between the nervous system and theendocrineandimmunesystems, respectively.[56]Despite many advancements, the way that networks of neurons perform complexcognitive processesand behaviors is still poorly understood.[57]

Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience

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Main articles:Behavioral neuroscienceandCognitive neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscienceaddresses the questions of howpsychological functionsare produced byneural circuitry.The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such asneuroimaging(e.g.,fMRI,PET,SPECT),EEG,MEG,electrophysiology,optogeneticsandhuman genetic analysiscombined with sophisticatedexperimental techniquesfromcognitive psychologyallowsneuroscientistsandpsychologiststo address abstract questions such as how cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. Although many studies hold a reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. For example, neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology.[58]Moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged the idea ofmemoryas a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process.[59]

Neuroscience is also allied with thesocialandbehavioral sciences,as well as with nascent interdisciplinary fields. Examples of such alliances includeneuroeconomics,decision theory,social neuroscience,andneuromarketingto address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. A study into consumer responses for example uses EEG to investigate neural correlates associated withnarrative transportationinto stories aboutenergy efficiency.[60]

Computational neuroscience

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Main article:Computational neuroscience

Questions in computational neuroscience can span a wide range of levels of traditional analysis, such asdevelopment,structure,andcognitive functionsof the brain. Research in this field utilizesmathematical models,theoretical analysis, andcomputer simulationto describe and verify biologically plausible neurons and nervous systems. For example,biological neuron modelsare mathematical descriptions of spiking neurons which can be used to describe both the behavior of single neurons as well as the dynamics ofneural networks.Computational neuroscience is often referred to as theoretical neuroscience.

Neuroscience and medicine

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Clinical neuroscience

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Further information:Clinical neuroscience

Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology andpain medicine,neuropathology,neuroradiology,ophthalmology,otolaryngology,clinical neurophysiology,addiction medicine,andsleep medicineare some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases.[61]

Neurologyworks with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such asamyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS) andstroke,and their medical treatment.Psychiatryfocuses onaffective,behavioral,cognitive,andperceptualdisorders.Anesthesiologyfocuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness.Neuropathologyfocuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations.Neurosurgeryandpsychosurgerywork primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems.[62]

Translational research

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Further information:Translational researchandTranslational neuroscience
AnMRIof a male's head showingbenign familial macrocephaly(head circumference > 60 cm)

Recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced bybasic researchin neuroscience. For example,brain imagingenables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and improved monitoring of patient progress over time.[63]

Integrative neurosciencedescribes the effort to combine models and information from multiple levels of research to develop a coherent model of the nervous system. For example, brain imaging coupled with physiological numerical models and theories of fundamental mechanisms may shed light on psychiatric disorders.[64]

Another important area of translational research isbrain–computer interfaces(BCIs), or machines that are able to communicate and influence the brain. They are currently being researched for their potential to repair neural systems and restore certain cognitive functions.[65]However, some ethical considerations have to be dealt with before they are accepted.[66][67]

Major branches

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Modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields.

List of the major branches of neuroscience
Branch Description
Affective neuroscience Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms involved in emotion, typically through experimentation on animal models.[68]
Behavioral neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience (also known as biological psychology, physiological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology) is the application of the principles of biology to the study of genetic, physiological, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals.[69]
Cellular neuroscience Cellular neuroscience is the study of neurons at a cellular level including morphology and physiological properties.[70]
Clinical neuroscience Thescientific studyof the biological mechanisms that underlie the disorders and diseases of thenervous system.[71]
Cognitive neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the biological mechanisms underlying cognition.[71]
Computational neuroscience Computational neuroscience is the theoretical study of the nervous system.[72]
Cultural neuroscience Cultural neuroscience is the study of how cultural values, practices and beliefs shape and are shaped by the mind, brain and genes across multiple timescales.[73]
Developmental neuroscience Developmental neuroscience studies the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the nervous system and seeks to describe the cellular basis of neural development to address underlying mechanisms.[74]
Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary neuroscience studies the evolution of nervous systems.[75]
Molecular neuroscience Molecular neuroscience studies the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry, and related methodologies.[76]
Nanoneuroscience An interdisciplinary field that integrates nanotechnology and neuroscience.[77]
Neural engineering Neural engineering uses engineering techniques to interact with, understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems.[78]
Neuroanatomy Neuroanatomy is the study of theanatomyofnervous systems.[79]
Neurochemistry Neurochemistry is the study of howneurochemicalsinteract and influence the function of neurons.[80]
Neuroethology Neuroethology is the study of the neural basis of non-human animals behavior.
Neurogastronomy Neurogastronomy is the study of flavor and how it affects sensation, cognition, and memory.[81]
Neurogenetics Neurogenetics is the study of the genetical basis of the development and function of thenervous system.[82]
Neuroimaging Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure and function of the brain.[83]
Neuroimmunology Neuroimmunology is concerned with the interactions between the nervous and the immune system.[84]
Neuroinformatics Neuroinformatics is a discipline within bioinformatics that conducts the organization of neuroscience data and application of computational models and analytical tools.[85]
Neurolinguistics Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.[86][71]
Neuro-ophthalmology Neuro-ophthalmology is an academically oriented subspecialty that merges the fields of neurology and ophthalmology, often dealing with complex systemic diseases that have manifestations in the visual system.
Neurophysics Neurophysics is the branch of biophysics dealing with the development and use of physical methods to gain information about the nervous system.[87]
Neurophysiology Neurophysiology is the study of the structure and function of the nervous system, generally using physiological techniques that include measurement and stimulation with electrodes or optically with ion- or voltage-sensitive dyes or light-sensitive channels.[88]
Neuropsychology Neuropsychology is a discipline that resides under the umbrellas of both psychology and neuroscience, and is involved in activities in the arenas of both basic science and applied science. In psychology, it is most closely associated withbiopsychology,clinical psychology,cognitive psychology,anddevelopmental psychology.In neuroscience, it is most closely associated with the cognitive, behavioral, social, and affective neuroscience areas. In the applied and medical domain, it is related to neurology and psychiatry.[89]
Neuropsychopharmacology Neuropsychopharmacology, an interdisciplinary science related topsychopharmacologyand fundamental neuroscience, is the study of the neural mechanisms that drugs act upon to influence behavior.[90]
Optogenetics Optogenetics is a biological technique to control the activity of neurons or other cell types with light.
Paleoneurobiology Paleoneurobiology is a field that combines techniques used in paleontology and archeology to study brain evolution, especially that of the human brain.[91]
Social neuroscience Social neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding how biological systems implement social processes and behavior, and to using biological concepts and methods to inform and refine theories of social processes and behavior.[92]
Systems neuroscience Systems neuroscience is the study of the function of neural circuits and systems.[93]

Careers in neuroscience[94]

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Bachelor's Level

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Pharmaceutical Sales Residential Counselor
Laboratory Technician Regulatory Affairs Specialist
Psychometrist* Medical Technician*
Science Writer Clinical Research Assistant
Science Advocacy Special Education Assistant
Nonprofit Work Patient Care Assistant*
Health Educator Orthotic and Prosthetic Technician*
EEG Technologist* Lab Animal Care Technician
Medical and Healthcare Manager Sales Engineer
Forensic Science Technician Law Enforcement
Pharmacy Technician* Natural Sciences Manager
Public Policy Advertising/Marketing

Master's Level

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Nurse Practitioner Neuroimaging Technician
Physician's Assistant Teacher
Genetic Counselor Epidemiology
Occupational Therapist Biostatistician
Orthotist/Prosthetist Speech-Language Pathologist
Neural Engineer Public Health

Advanced Degree

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Medicine (MD, DO) Food Scientist
Research Scientist Pharmacist
Dentist Veterinarian
Physical Therapist Audiologist
Optometrist Lawyer
Clinical Psychologist Professor
Neuropsychologist Chiropractor

Neuroscience organizations

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See also:Category:Neuroscience organizations

The largest professional neuroscience organization is theSociety for Neuroscience(SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 countries.[95]Annual meetings, held each year in a different American city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research.

Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include theInternational Brain Research Organization(IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and theFederation of European Neuroscience Societies(FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years. FENS comprises a set of 32 national-level organizations, including theBritish Neuroscience Association,the German Neuroscience Society (Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft), and the FrenchSociété des Neurosciences.[96]The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience,Nu Rho Psi,was founded in 2006. Numerous youth neuroscience societies which support undergraduates, graduates and early career researchers also exist, such as Simply Neuroscience[97]and Project Encephalon.[98]

In 2013, theBRAIN Initiativewas announced in the US. The International Brain Initiative[99]was created in 2017,[100]currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US,Europe,Allen Institute,Japan,China,Australia,[101]Canada,[102]Korea,[103]and Israel[104])[105]spanning four continents.

Public education and outreach

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In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in thepromotion of awareness and knowledgeabout the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing theInternational Brain Bee,which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide.[106]In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts,[107]collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students,[108]and cosponsoring a campaign with theDana Foundationcalled Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.[109]In Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research's (CIHR) Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually atMcMaster University.[110]

Neuroscience educators formed a Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN) in 1992 to share best practices and provide travel awards for undergraduates presenting at Society for Neuroscience meetings.[111]

Neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field callededucational neuroscience.[112]Federal agencies in the United States, such as theNational Institute of Health(NIH)[113]andNational Science Foundation(NSF),[114]have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts.

Engineering applications of neuroscience

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Neuromorphic computer chips

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Neuromorphic engineeringis a branch of neuroscience that deals with creating functionalphysical modelsof neurons for the purposes of useful computation. The emergent computational properties of neuromorphic computers are fundamentally different from conventional computers in the sense that they arecomplex systems,and that the computational components are interrelated with no central processor.[115]

One example of such a computer is theSpiNNakersupercomputer.[116]

Sensors can also be made smart with neuromorphic technology. An example of this is theEvent Camera's BrainScaleS (brain-inspired Multiscale Computation in Neuromorphic Hybrid Systems), a hybrid analog neuromorphic supercomputer located at Heidelberg University in Germany. It was developed as part of theHuman Brain Project's neuromorphic computing platform and is the complement to the SpiNNaker supercomputer, which is based on digital technology. The architecture used in BrainScaleS mimics biological neurons and their connections on a physical level; additionally, since the components are made of silicon, these model neurons operate on average 864 times (24 hours of real time is 100 seconds in the machine simulation) that of their biological counterparts.[117]

Recent advances inneuromorphicmicrochip technology have led a group of scientists to create an artificial neuron that can replace real neurons in diseases.[118][119]

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See also:List of neuroscience awards
Year Prize field Image Laureate Lifetime Country Rationale Ref.
1904 Physiology Ivan Petrovich Pavlov 1849–1936 Russian Empire "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged" [120]
1906 Physiology Camillo Golgi 1843–1926 Kingdom of Italy "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system" [121]
Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1852–1934 Restoration (Spain)
1911 Physiology Allvar Gullstrand 1862– 1930 Sweden "for his work on the dioptrics of the eye" [122]
1914 Physiology Robert Bárány 1876–1936 Austria-Hungary "for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus" [123]
1932 Physiology Charles Scott Sherrington 1857–1952 United Kingdom "for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons" [124]
Edgar Douglas Adrian 1889–1977 United Kingdom
1936 Physiology Henry Hallett Dale 1875–1968 United Kingdom "for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses" [125]
Otto Loewi 1873–1961 Austria
Germany
1938 Physiology Corneille Jean François Heymans 1892–1968 Belgium "for the discovery of the role played by thesinusandaortic mechanismsin the regulation ofrespiration" [126]
1944 Physiology Joseph Erlanger 1874–1965 United States "for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres" [127]
Herbert Spencer Gasser 1888–1963 United States
1949 Physiology Walter Rudolf Hess 1881–1973 Switzerland "for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs" [128]
António Caetano Egas Moniz 1874–1955 Portugal "for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses" [128]
1955 Chemistry Vincent du Vigneaud 1901–1978 United States "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of apolypeptide hormone"(Oxytocin) [129]
1957 Physiology Daniel Bovet 1907–1992 Italy "for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles" [130]
1961 Physiology Georg von Békésy 1899–1972 United States "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea" [131]
1963 Physiology John Carew Eccles 1903–1997 Australia "for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane" [132]
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin 1914–1998 United Kingdom
Andrew Fielding Huxley 1917–2012 United Kingdom
1967 Physiology Ragnar Granit 1900–1991 Finland
Sweden 		"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye" [133]
Haldan Keffer Hartline 1903–1983 United States
George Wald 1906–1997 United States
1970 Physiology Julius Axelrod 1912–2004 United States "for their discoveries concerning the humoraltransmittors in the nerve terminalsand the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation " [132]
Ulf von Euler 1905–1983 Sweden
Bernard Katz 1911–2003 United Kingdom
1973 Physiology Karl von Frisch 1886–1982 Austria "for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns" [134]
Konrad Lorenz 1903–1989 Austria
Nikolaas Tinbergen 1907–1988 Netherlands
1977 Physiology Roger Guillemin 1924–2024 France "for their discoveries concerning thepeptide hormoneproduction of thebrain" [135]
Andrew V. Schally 1926– Poland
1981 Physiology Roger W. Sperry 1913–1994 United States "for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of thecerebral hemispheres" [133]
David H. Hubel 1926–2013 Canada "for their discoveries concerning information processing in thevisual system" [133]
Torsten N. Wiesel 1924– Sweden
1986 Physiology Stanley Cohen 1922–2020 United States "for their discoveries ofgrowth factors" [136]
Rita Levi-Montalcini 1909–2012 Italy
1997 Physiology Stanley B. Prusiner 1942– United States "for his discovery ofPrions- a new biological principle of infection " [137]
1997 Chemistry Jens C. Skou 1918–2018 Denmark "for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+,K+-ATPase " [138]
2000 Physiology Arvid Carlsson 1923–2018 Sweden "for their discoveries concerningsignal transductionin thenervous system" [139]
Paul Greengard 1925–2019 United States
Eric R. Kandel 1929– United States
2003 Chemistry Roderick MacKinnon 1956– United States "for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes [...] for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels" [140]
2004 Physiology Richard Axel 1946– United States "for their discoveries ofodorant receptorsand the organization of theolfactory system" [141]
Linda B. Buck 1947– United States
2012 Chemistry Robert Lefkowitz 1943– United States "for studies ofG-protein-coupled receptors"" [142]
Brian Kobilka 1955– United States
2014 Physiology John O'Keefe 1939– United States
United Kingdom 		"for their discoveries ofplaceandgridcells that constitute a positioning system in the brain " [143]
May-Britt Moser 1963– Norway
Edvard I. Moser 1962– Norway
2017 Physiology Jeffrey C. Hall 1939– United States "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling thecircadian rhythm" [144]
Michael Rosbash 1944– United States
Michael W. Young 1949– United States
2021 Physiology David Julius 1955– United States "for their discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch" [145]
Ardem Patapoutian 1967– Lebanon

United States

2024 Physics John Hopfield 1933– United States “for foundational discoveries and inventions that enablemachine learningwithartificial neural networks” [146]
Geoffrey Hinton 1947– United Kingdom

See also

edit

References

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