Numidia

Kingdom of Numidia
Kingdom of Numidia
202 BC–25 BC
	Numidian coins under Massinissa
	Map of Numidia after the Punic Wars
Capital	Cirta(todayConstantine,Algeria)
Official languages	Punic
Common languages	Numidian; Latin; Greek
Religion	Numitheism,Punic Religion
Government	Monarchy
King
• 202–148 BC	Masinissa
• 148 – 118 BC	Gulussa
• 148–140 BC	Mastanabal
• 118–117 BC	Hiempsal I
• 118–112 BC	Adherbal
• 118–105 BC	Jugurtha
• 105–88 BC	Gauda
• 88–81 BC	Masteabar
• 84–82 BC	Hiarbas II
• 88–60 BC	Hiempsal II
• 60–46 BC	Juba I
• 81–46 BC	Massinissa II
• 44–40 BC	Arabion
Historical era	Antiquity
• Established	202 BC
• Annexed by theRoman Empire	25 BC
Currency	Numidian Coinage,carthagenian coinage
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Ancient Carthage
	Massylii
	Masaesyli
Numidia (Roman province)
Mauretania
Today part of	Algeria; Libya; Tunisia;

Numidiawas the ancient kingdom of theNumidiansin northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes upAlgeria,^[10]but later expanding across what is today known asTunisiaandLibya.The polity was originally divided between theMassyliistate in the east (Capital:Cirta)and theMasaesyliin the west (Capital:Siga).^[11]During theSecond Punic War(218–201 BC),Masinissa,king of the Massylii, defeatedSyphaxof theMasaesylito unify Numidia into the first unifiedBerberstate forNumidiansin present-day Algeria.^[12]The kingdom began as a sovereign state and an ally ofRomeand later alternated between being aRoman provinceand a Romanclient state.

Numidia, at its foundation, was bordered by theMoulouya Riverto the west,^[13]Africa ProconsularisandCyrenaicato the east.^[14]^[15]theMediterranean Seato the north, and theSaharato the south so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage (Appian,Punica,106) except towards the sea.^[16]before Masinissa expanded past the Moulouya and vassalizing Bokkar, and reaching theAtlanticocean to the west.^[17]^[18]^[19]

History

Independence

The Numidian mausoleum ofEl-Khroubphotographed in 2000

The Greek historians referred to these peoples as "Νομάδες" (i.e. Nomads), which by Latin interpretation became "Numidae" (but cf. also the correct use ofNomades).^[20]HistorianGabriel Camps,however, disputes this claim, favoring instead a local African origin for the term.^[21]

The name appears first inPolybius(second century BC) to indicate the peoples and territory west ofCarthageincluding the entire north of Algeria as far as the riverMulucha(Muluya), about 160 kilometres (100 mi) west ofOran.^[22]

The Numidians were composed of two great tribal groups: theMassyliiin eastern Numidia, and theMasaesyliin the west. During the first part of theSecond Punic War,the eastern Massylii, under their kingGala,were allied with Carthage, while the western Masaesyli, under kingSyphax,were allied with Rome. The Kingdom of Masaesyli under Syphax extended from the Moulouya river to Oued Rhumel.^[23]

However, in 206 BC, the new king of the eastern Massylii,Masinissa,allied himself with Rome, and Syphax of the Masaesyli switched his allegiance to the Carthaginian side. At the end of the war, Numidia was under the rule of Masinissa of the Massylii.^[22]At the time of his death in 148 BC, Masinissa's territory extended from the Moulouya to the boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also southeast as far asCyrenaicato the gulf ofSirte,so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage (Appian,Punica,106) except towards the sea.^[16]Furthermore, after the capture of Syphax the king of the Masaesyli (West Algeria) with his capital based inSiga^[11]and after losing Siga had relocated to a temporary capital in Tinga, Bokkar, had become a vassal of Massinissa.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Massinissa had also penetrated as far south beyond the Atlas to theGaetuliandFezzanwas part of his domain.^[14]^[15]

After the death of the long-lived Masinissa around 148 BC, he was succeeded by his sonMicipsa.When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sonsHiempsal IandAdherbaland Masinissa's illegitimate grandson,Jugurtha,who was very popular among the Numidians. Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa. Jugurtha had Hiempsal killed, which led to open war with Adherbal.^[24]

Agriculture

The Numidian kingdom was very famous for its agricultural yield; besideslettuce,beans,and othergrainsalready consumed by Berbers since the dawn of time, Numidia was very productive when it came to its famously high-qualitywheat,very similar to the wheat farmed along the banks of the EgyptianNile.According to Roman historianPliny the elder:

Among the wheat imports of Rome, is light wheat imported from Gallia which does not surpass the weight of a bushel (Boisseau) 20 livres. The weight of the wheat of Sardinia surpasses that of Gallia by half a livre, the wheat of Biossia surpasses that of Gallia by an entire livre, wheras the wheat of Africa surpasses the weight of wheat of Gallia by a whole livre and three fourths.^[25]

In 179 BC, KingMasinissaof Numidia received a golden crown from the inhabitants ofDelos,as he had offered them a shipload of grain. A statue of Masinissa was erected in Delos in his honor, with an inscription by a native fromRhodes.His sons, too, had statues erected on the island of Delos; the King of Bithynia, Nicomedes, had also dedicated a statue to Masinissa.^[26]By 143 AD, the export of olive oil from Numidia rivaled its grain export throughout the Roman Empire.

In 200 BC, the Roman Army stationed inMacedoniareceived 17,508 hectoliters of Numidian wheat; in 198 BC, the Roman Army in Greece was sent, once again, the same amount of wheat. In 191 BC, Rome received 26,262 hectoliters of wheat and 21,885 hectoliters ofbarley;Greece, the same year, received 43,770 hectoliters of wheat and 26,262 hectoliters of barley. Then, in 171 BC, the Roman army in Macedonia received 87,540 hectoliters of wheat.

Numidia (in blue) at its largest extent after capturing Syphax in Tingitania and vassalizing Bokkar.^[27]surrounding Carthage (Yellow) and neighoring Ptolemaic Egypt (deep purple) and the Roman Republic (Red)

In total Rome received:^[28]

in 200 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat and 10,500 tonnes of barley.
in 198 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat.
in 191 BC: 56,000 tonnes of wheat and 28,900 tonnes of barley.
in 170 BC: 70,000 tonnes of wheat.

These numbers only represent a fraction from the reserves of the kingdom of Massinissa. His contributions to the Romans in 170 BC appear to be only a fraction of the kingdom's total production, as he was upset by Rome's decision to pay for the provided wheat that

year. Massinissa hadn't laid his hands yet on the fertile lands of the Emporia (North WestAncient Libya) nor the great plains full of fertile soil yet; generally, barley was his kingdom's main produce, as they grew barley in light, mountainous and hilly soil which is suitable for its cultivation.

War with Rome

By 112 BC, Jugurtha resumed his war with Adherbal. He incurred the wrath of Rome in the process by killing some Roman businessmen who were aiding Adherbal. After a brief war with Rome, Jugurtha surrendered and received a highly favourable peace treaty, which raised suspicions of bribery once more. The local Roman commander was summoned to Rome to face corruption charges brought by his political rivalGaius Memmius.^[29]^[30]Jugurtha was also forced to come to Rome to testify against the Roman commander, where Jugurtha was completely discredited once his violent and ruthless past became widely known, and after he had been suspected of murdering a Numidian rival.

War broke out between Numidia and theRoman Republicand several legions were dispatched to North Africa under the command of the ConsulQuintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus.The war dragged out into a long and seemingly endless campaign as the Romans tried to defeat Jugurtha decisively. Frustrated at the apparent lack of action, Metellus' lieutenantGaius Mariusreturned to Rome to seek election as Consul. Marius was elected, and then returned to Numidia to take control of the war. He sent his QuaestorSullato neighbouring Mauretania in order to eliminate their support for Jugurtha. With the help ofBocchus Iof Mauretania, Sulla captured Jugurtha and brought the war to a conclusive end. Jugurtha was brought to Rome in chains and was placed in theTullianum.^[31]

Jugurtha was executed by the Romans in 104 BC, after being paraded through the streets in Gaius Marius' Triumph.^[32]

Divided kingdom

After the death of Jugurtha, the far-west of Numidia was added to the lands ofBocchus I,King of Mauretania.^[22]Arump kingdomcontinued to be governed by native princes.^[22]It appears that, on the death of KingGaudain 88 BC, the kingdom was divided into a larger, eastern land and a smaller, western kingdom (roughly thePetite Kabylie). The kings of the east minted coins, while no known coins of the western kings survive. The western kings may have been vassals of the eastern.^[33]^[34]

Thecivil war between Caesar and Pompeybrought an end to independent Numidia in 46 BC.^[22]The western kingdom between the Sava (Oued Soummam) and Ampsaga (Oued-el-Kebir) rivers passed toBocchus II,while the eastern kingdom became a Roman province. The remainder of the western kingdom plus the city ofCirta,which may have belonged to either kingdom, became briefly an autonomous principality underPublius Sittius.Between 44 and 40 BC, the old western kingdom was once again under a Numidian king,Arabio,who killed Sittius and took his place. He involved himself in Rome's civil wars and was himself killed.^[34]

Roman provinces

Northern Africa under Roman rule

Eastern Numidiawas annexed in 46 BC to create a new Roman province,Africa Nova.Western Numidiawas also annexed as part of the provinceAfrica Novaafter the death of its last king,Arabio,in 40 BC, and subsequently the province (except ofWestern Numidia) was united with provinceAfrica Vetusby EmperorAugustusin 25 BC, to create the new provinceAfrica Proconsularis.During the brief period (30–25 BC)Juba II(son ofJuba I) ruled as a client king of Numidia on the territory of former provinceAfrica Nova.

In AD 40, the western portion of Africa Proconsularis, including its legionary garrison, was placed under an imperiallegatus,and in effect became a separate province of Numidia, though thelegatusof Numidia remained nominally subordinate to the proconsul of Africa until AD 203.^[35]In 193 AD, underSeptimius Severus,Numidia was separated from Africa Proconsularis, and governed by an imperialprocurator.^[22]

In the reorganization of the empire byDiocletian,Numidia was divided in two provinces: the north becameNumidia Cirtensis,with capital atCirta,while the south, which included theAurès Mountainsand was threatened by raids, becameNumidia Militiana,"Military Numidia", with capital at the legionary base ofLambaesis.

Marble withPunicinscription mentioning kingMicipsafound inIol.

Subsequently EmperorConstantine the Greatreunited the two provinces into a single one, administered from Cirta, which was now renamedConstantina(modernConstantine) in his honour. Its governor was raised to the rank ofconsularisin 320, and the province remained one of the six provinces of theDiocese of Africauntil the invasion of theVandalsin 428, which began its slow decay,^[22]accompanied bydesertification.It was restored to Roman rule after theVandalic War,when it became part of the newPraetorian prefecture of Africa.^{[citation needed]}

Architecture

The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania

Mausoleum of Thugga

The term “Royal Numidian Architecture” was coined for the monuments that were constructed by the Numidian kings.^[36]These monuments consist of tombs, tumuli and sanctuaries. Some examples of these structures are themausoleum of Thugga,the tomb of Beni Rhenane, a tomb at Henchur Burgu in Djerba as well as two tumulus tombs known as theMadghacenand theRoyal Mausoleum of Mauretania.^[36]There are also altars that were built atSimitthusand Kbor Klib. All of these monuments were built within the area ruled by Massinissa and his descendants.^[36]

Madghacen

Navy and trade

Numidia took over most of the famous Carthaginian ports which were one of the most important in the mediterranean, the famous Roman orator and historianCicerotells us that the Numidian king had a war navy to protect his trade, in one story, the fleet of Massinissa sailed to Malta and confiscated large ivory elephant pillars from the temple ofJunoand returned to Numidia and gave it as a prize to Massinissa. When the king knew about the origin of the gift, he prepared a nimble fleet of five ships and sent it back to where it came from. This funny story tells us that not only Massinissa had enough ships to perform tasks at will but also these fleets were functioning outside of African shorelines towards the central mediterranean.

Rhodean Greek amphora that dates to circa 180 B.C. in Cirta Museum

Unlike the Carthaginians who closed trade in face of the Greeks to large parts of North africa, Massinissa opened trade with the Greek, Egyptian, Syrian as well as Italic merchants, Massinissa used to provide to the population of Rhodes Toja wood and Ivory,^[37]inCirtamultiple Rhodian amphorae from the 2nd century B.C were found in burial sites and one of them carries the inscription (Sodamos).^[38]

Major cities

Numidia became highly romanized and was studded with numerous towns.^[22]The chief towns of Roman Numidia were: in the north,Cirtaor modernConstantine,the capital, with its portRussicada(ModernSkikda); andHippo Regius(nearBône), well known as theseeof St.Augustine.To the south in the interior military roads led toTheveste(Tebessa) andLambaesis(Lambessa) with extensive Roman remains, connected by military roads with Cirta and Hippo, respectively.^[22]^[39]

Lambaesis was the seat of theLegio IIIAugusta,and the most important strategic centre.^[22]It commanded the passes of theAurès Mountains(Mons Aurasius), a mountain block that separated Numidia from theGaetuliBerber tribes of the desert, and which was gradually occupied in its whole extent by the Romans under the Empire. Including these towns, there were altogether twenty that are known to have received at one time or another the title and status of Roman colonies; and in the 5th century, theNotitia Dignitatumenumerates no fewer than 123 sees whose bishops assembled at Carthage in 479.^[22]

Episcopal sees

SeeNumidia (Roman province)#Episcopal sees.

Explanatory notes

^Punic and Neo-Punic was especially dominant during the early era of the Numidian kingdom. Several official Punic inscriptions survive, and Numidian coins were minted in Punic at first, likely because it was the most influential language when it came to trade in the area. Some historians even consider it the official language of Numidia during its early/mid eras.^[1]
^Used especially in funerary and votive steles, with a few surviving "official" royal inscriptions.^[5]^[6]^[7]
^During the later eras of Numidia, Latin started replacing Punic as the dominant secondary language inside Numidia. Coins were minted in Latin, and inscriptions in Latin began appearing,^[8]however, many of those Latin inscriptions may have been from the Roman era itself
^Greek first appeared in the region through trade routes opened up byMassinissa,and gained traction and influence by the end of the kingdom when the Numidian dynasty intermarried and mixed with thePtolemaic dynasty.^[9]

References

^Quinn, Josephine Crawley; Vella, Nicholas C. (2014-12-04).The Punic Mediterranean.Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1-107-05527-8.
^Baldauf, Richard B.; Kaplan, Robert B. (2007-01-01).Language Planning and Policy in Africa.Multilingual Matters. p. 38.ISBN 978-1-84769-011-1.Numidic kings and elites spoke and used Punic as the official language while peasants spoke Berber. The Carthaginian idiom was in use until the third century CE
^Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1975).The Cambridge History of Africa.Cambridge University Press. p. 184.ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.Punic was employed as the official language of the Numidian kingdom, as is shown by monumental inscriptions and coin legends. Numidia even became something of a centre of Punic literary culture. In 146 BC the Romans presented to Micipsa the captured library of Carthage, and in the following century, as has been seen, a Numidian king (Hiempsal II) wrote a history of his country in Punic.
^Hoyos, B. Dexter (2015).Mastering the West: Rome and Carthage at War.Oxford University Press. p. 277.ISBN 978-0-19-986010-4.The Punic language and religion survived the cataclysm too. Many if not most Libyan communities used Punic for official purposes, as did the Numidian kingdom.
^Boutammina, Nas E. (2022-01-06).Le numide, langue populaire de la Berbérie(in French). Books on Demand.ISBN 978-2-322-41710-0.
^Chaker, S. (2008-01-01)."Libyque: écriture et langue".Encyclopédie berbère(in French) (28–29): 4395–4409.doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.344.ISSN 1015-7344.S2CID 161729616.
^Camps, G.; Claudot-Hawad, H.; Chaker, S.; Abrous, D. (1996-08-01)."Écriture".Encyclopédie berbère(in French) (17): 2564–2585.doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.2125.ISSN 1015-7344.
^Hirst, Anthony; Silk, Michael (2017-05-15).Alexandria, Real and Imagined.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-351-95959-9.
^Roller, Duane W. (2004-02-24).The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier.Routledge.ISBN 978-1-134-40296-0.
^"Numidia".Livius.23 Sep 2020.Retrieved2 Aug2024.
^^a ^bAbed, Bakhta Moukraenta (2015).Les villes de l'Algérie antique Tome I: Au travers des sources arabes du Moyen Âge (Province de la Maurétanie Césarienne)(in French). Presses Académiques Francophones. p. 226.ISBN 978-3-8381-7852-3.
^Thomas M. Leonard (2013).Encyclopedia of the Developing World.Routledge. p. 169.ISBN 978-1-135-20508-9.
^Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.Retrieved16 February2020.
^^a ^bHistoire des Romains depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à la fin du règne des Antonins: Depuis les Gracques jusqu'à la fin du règne de Claude.Victor Duruy. Hachette et cie
^^a ^bStoria della Libia dai tempi piu' [i.e. più] remoti ad oggi: compendio.Muḥammad Masʻūd Fushaykah. Stabilimento poligrafico editoriale Maggi.
^^a ^bHistorical Dictionary of Morocco Aomar Boum, Thomas K. Park Rowman & Littlefield
^^a ^bVilles et tribus du Maroc: documents et renseignements, Volume 7 Morocco. Direction des affaires indigènes: “Les rois indigènes. Bokkar. Au début du troisième siècle avant JésusChrist, le Maroc obéissait à Bokkar, qui résidait à Tanger, capitale du royaume, et qui était un lieutenant du roi de Numidie Syphax. En 202 avant Jésus - Christ, après la capture de Syphax, il devint le vassal de Massinissa” H. Champion
^^a ^bHistoire du Maroc Coissac de Chavrebière Payot: “La guerre tourna à l'avantage de Massinissa, allié des Romains. Syphax fut fait prisonnier ( 202 ) et Bokkar devint le vassal du vainqueur. « Massinissa, dit St. Gsell, rêvà d'être pour la civilisation punique ce que le Macédonien...”
^^a ^bLe Maroc Prosper Ricard Hachette: “En 202 avant J.-C., elle était la résidence, disent les Anciens, de Bokkar, roi du Maroc, lieutenant de Syphax le numide, vassal de Massinissa. En 105 avant J.-C., Bokkus [ er, allié de Sylla, livre aux Romains son gendre”
^NumidaandNomas
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^Sallust(c. 40 BCE),Jugurthine WarXI–XIII.
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^Detailed map of Roman Numidia