Wikipedia

Off-road vehicle

Not to be confused withSport utility vehicle (SUV).

Anoff-road vehicle(ORV), also known as anoff-highway vehicle(OHV),overland vehicle,oradventure vehicle,is avehiclespecifically designed to traverseunpavedroads and surfaces,[1]such astrails,forest roads,and other low-traction surfaces. Off-road vehicles have gained popularity through competitive events such as the annualDakar Rally,[2]which challenges drivers to navigate diverse and extreme terrain across multiple countries.

Mercedes-BenzUnimogin the Dunes ofErg ChebbiinMorocco.The vehicle'sportal gearaxles provide high ground clearance.

History

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Nicholas II's Packard Twin-6 with Kégresse track, 1917

One of the earliest modified off-road vehicles was theKégresse track,a conversion developed byAdolphe Kégressewhile working forTsarNicholas II of Russiabetween 1906 and 1916.[3]The system employed acaterpillar trackwith a flexible belt instead of interlocking metal segments, which could be fitted to a conventional vehicle, turning it into a half-track suitable for rough or soft terrain.

After theRussian Revolution of 1917,Kégresse returned toFranceand the system was used onCitroëncars between 1921 and 1937 for off-road andmilitary vehicles.Citroënsponsored several overland expeditions with these vehicles, crossingNorth AfricaandCentral Asia.

TheAntarctic Snow Cruiser,a large wheeled vehicle designed 1937-1939 under the direction ofThomas Poulter,was intended for transport inAntarctica.While the project incorporated novel features, it faced operational difficulties in the harsh Antarctic conditions, eventually leading to its discontinuation.[citation needed]

AfterWorld War II,a huge surplus of light off-road vehicles like theJeepand heavier lorries were available on the automobile market.[citation needed]The Jeeps in particular were popular with buyers who used them asutility vehicles.This was also the start of off-roading as a hobby. The wartime Jeeps soon wore out, though, and the Jeep company started to produce civilian derivatives, closely followed by similar vehicles fromBritishLand RoverandJapaneseToyota,Datsun/Nissan,Suzuki,andMitsubishi.These were all similar: small, compact,four-wheel-drive vehicleswith at most a small hardtop to protect the occupants from the elements.

Early off-road vehicles, like the U.S.Jeep WagoneerandFord Bronco;the BritishRange Rover;and the JapaneseToyota Land Cruiser,Nissan Patrol,andSuzuki's LJ series;featured bodies similar to those of astation wagonbut on alight truck-like frame, withfour-wheel-drivedrivetrains.As off-road vehicles increased in popularity during the 1990s, more companies began producing their own lines of what became known as Sport Utility Vehicles.[4]Manufacturers started incorporating more features to make off-road vehicles competitive with regular vehicles in the consumer market, which eventually evolved into the modernSUVand the newercrossover vehicle,whereOff-roadingcapabilities were reduced in favor of improved on-road handling and luxury.

Technical details

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Swedish HägglundsBv206with wide rubber tracks

To effectively navigate off thepavement,off-road vehiclesrequire lowground pressure,highground clearance,and the ability to maintainwheelsortrackcontact on uneven surfaces. Wheeled vehicles achieve this through large or additional tires, combined with high and compliantsuspension.Tracked vehiclesuse wide tracks and flexiblesuspensionon the road wheels.

RussianGAZ-34039[ru]

The choice between wheels and tracks depends on cost and suitability. Trackeddrivetrainsare more expensive to produce and maintain but offer superior off-road performance, while wheeled drivetrains are cheaper and allow for higher speeds.

Tiresare crucial for wheeled off-road vehicles, andoff-road tiretread types vary based on the terrain. Common types include A/T (All Terrain) and M/T (Mud Terrain). A/T tires perform well on sand but are less effective in mud. Sand Blaster andMud boggingtires are used for challenging terrains like dirt, sand, and water to ensure traction at high angles and speeds (off-roadmotorsport).[5]

Most off-road vehicles are equipped withlow gearings,allowing the operator to optimize theengine'savailable powerfor slow movement through difficult terrain. Aninternal combustion enginecoupled to a standardgearboxoften has an output speed that is too high, which is resolved by using a very low ( "granny" ) first gear (as in all-wheel driveVolkswagen Transporterversions) or an additional gearbox in line with the first, known as areduction drive.Some vehicles, such as the Bv206, also havetorque convertersto reduce the gearing.[6]

Many wheeled off-road vehicles provide power to all wheels to keep traction on slippery surfaces. For a typical four-wheel vehicle, this is known asfour-wheel drive.Vehicles designed for use both on and off-road may be designed to be switched between two-wheel drive and four-wheel drive so that the vehicle uses fewer driven wheels when driven on the road.[citation needed]

Criticism

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Safety

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Main article:Criticism of sport utility vehicles

Sport utility vehicleshave a highercenter of gravity,[7]making them more prone to rolloveraccidentsthan standardpassenger cars.A study in theUnited Statesfound that SUVs have twice the fatality rate of passenger cars and nearly triple the fatality rate in rollover accidents.[8]

In the United States,light trucks(includingSUVs) account for 36 percent of all registered vehicles and are involved in about half of all fatal two-vehicle crashes with passenger cars. In 80 percent of these crashes, the fatalities are occupants of the passenger cars.[8]

Environment

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In theUnited States,the number of ORV users has increased sevenfold since 1972, from five million to 36 million in 2000.[9]Government policies that aim to protect wilderness while allowing recreational ORVs have been a subject of debate in the United States and other countries.[10]

All trail and off-trail activities affectnatural vegetationand wildlife, leading toerosion,invasive species,habitat loss,and ultimately,species loss,[11][12][13]which reduces anecosystem's ability to maintainhomeostasis.[14]ORVs cause more environmental stress thanfoot trafficalone, and ORV operators who attempt to challenge natural obstacles can cause significantly more damage than those who stay on legal trails.[15][16]Illegal off-road vehicle use is a seriousland managementissue, comparable to illegalgarbagedumping and other forms ofvandalism.[17]Organizations such asTread Lightly!and theSierra Clubpromote responsibletrail ethics.[18]

ORVs have also been criticized for creating excessive pollution in otherwise pristine areas, as well asnoise pollutionthat can impair hearing and stress wildlife.[19]In 2002, theUnited States Environmental Protection Agencyadopted emissions standards forall-terrain vehiclesthat, "when fully implemented in 2012, [...they] are expected to prevent the release of more than two million tons ofair pollutioneach year—the equivalent of removing thepollutionfrom more than 32 million cars every year. "[20][21]

Civilian use

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Common[where?]commercial vehicles used for off-roading include four-wheel-drivepickup trucksandSUVssuch as theFord F-Series,Jeep Wrangler,andToyota Land Cruiser,among others. Owners often modify the wheels, tires, suspension, and body to improve off-road performance. Decommissionedmilitary vehiclessuch as theJeep CJand theAM GeneralHummerhave also been repurposed for civilian use. Some vehicles, like earlyLand Rovers,were adapted for military use from civilian versions. Specialized off-road vehicles includeUtility terrain vehicles(UTVs),All-terrain vehicles(ATVs),dirt bikes,dune buggies,rock crawlersvehicles, andsandrails.

All-terrain vehicle

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This section is an excerpt fromAll-terrain vehicle.[edit]
The ATV is commonly called a four-wheeler in Australia, South Africa, parts of Canada, India, and the United States. They are used extensively in agriculture, because of their speed and light footprint.

Anall-terrain vehicle(ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV),[22]a quad bike or quad (if it has four wheels), as defined by theAmerican National Standards Institute(ANSI), is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, has a seat that is straddled by the operator, and has handlebars, similar to amotorcycle.As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. It isstreet-legalin some countries, but not in most states, territories and provinces of Australia, the United States, and Canada.

By the currentANSIdefinition, ATVs are intended for use by a single operator, but some ATVs, referred to as tandem ATVs, have been developed for use by the driver and one passenger.[23]

The rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Although most are equipped with three or four wheels, six or eight wheel (tracked) models exist and have existed historically for specialized applications.[24]Multiple-user analogues with side-by-side seating are calledutility terrain vehicles (UTVs) or side-by-sidesto distinguish the classes of vehicle. Both classes tend to have similarpowertrainparts.Engine sizesof ATVs for sale in the United States as of 2008 ranged from 49 to 1,000 cc (3.0 to 61cu in).

Other applications

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Military vehicle

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The military market for off-road vehicles was once substantial, but has diminished since thethe fall of the Iron Curtainin the 1990s. TheU.S. jeeps,developed duringWorld War II,popularized the term "jeep" for any light off-road vehicle. In the U.S., the Jeep's successor from the mid-1980s was the AM GeneralHMMWVseries. TheRed Armyused theGAZ-61andGAZ-64duringWorld War II,while theEastern Blocused theGAZ-69andUAZ-469in similar roles.

Experimental vehicle

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  • Experimental marsh buggy, 1928, stuck in mud.

Commercial vehicle

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  • Off-road bus in Iceland.

Scientific vehicle

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Expedition vehicle

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Vehicles used as primary transport in anexpedition,not for profit, scientific research or personal use.

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^"Off-Road Vehicle Act".New Brunswick Acts and regulations.Attorney General, New Brunswick, Canada. June 27, 1985. Archived fromthe original(Web)on 2007-08-18.Retrieved2007-10-17.
  2. ^"Dakar Rally".Retrieved2024-11-08.
  3. ^"MIG-resisteret".migreg/norsk/kiriletz.html.Archived fromthe originalon 17 February 2011.Retrieved12 February2025.
  4. ^"Gone without a Trace: These Are the Forgotten SUVs".Car and Driver.2018-03-05.Retrieved2024-11-21.
  5. ^"Mud terrain vs all-terrain tires – pros, cons & comparison".offroadium.com.Retrieved2017-04-17.
  6. ^https://pioneerrentals.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Hagglund_BV206D6_en.pdf[bare URL PDF]
  7. ^Rodney E. Slater (U.S. Transportation Secretary) (April 9, 1998)."Secretary Slater Proposes New Label; Warning of Rollover Danger for Sport Utility Vehicles".News Release.National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived fromthe original(Web)on 2007-02-13.Retrieved2007-05-17.
  8. ^abJeffrey W. Runge, M.D. (Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) (February 26, 2003)."The Honorable Jeffrey W. Runge, M.D. Administrator National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation United States Senate"(Web).Testimony before the Committee on Commerce, Science, And Transportation, United States Senate.National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.Retrieved2007-05-17.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^"Forest Service Rule Revs Up Off-Road Vehicle Fight"(Web).Article.Environment News Service (ENS). July 8, 2004.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  10. ^van Wagtendonk, Jan W. (2003)."Role of Science in Sustainable Management of Yosemite Wilderness"(PDF).USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003.USDA Forest Service.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  11. ^Rice, Kathleen C."National Collection of Imperiled Plants – Pholisma sonorae".Center for Plant Conservation.Retrieved8 June2012.
  12. ^"Mojave lizard may get protection; off-road vehicles are cited as threat".Los Angeles Times.12 January 2008.Retrieved2 May2015.
  13. ^"Officials seek to protect desert reptile".Las Vegas Review-Journal.Retrieved2 May2015.
  14. ^"Technical Notes"(PDF).Conserving Natural and Cultural Resources on Department of Defense Lands; Case Studies from the DoD Conservation Program (Page 13).US Department of Defense. 2004. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2007-06-28.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  15. ^Kristine Sowl & Rick Poetter (April 16, 2004)."Impact Analysis of Off-Road Vehicle Use for Subsistence Purposes on Refuge: Lands and Resources Adjacent to the King Cove Access Project"(PDF).Izembek National Wildlife Refuge (page 6).US Fish and wildlife services Alaska. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2007-06-28.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  16. ^"Recreation Management Goals and Strategies"(PDF).Capitol State Forest Recreation and Public Use Plan—Part II (Page 45).Washington State Department of Natural Resources. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2007-02-21.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  17. ^"Chapter 11. Field Management Status"(Web).Land Management (11.5.2 Identified Concerns of the Parks Department).Central Pine Barrens Joint Planning and Policy Commission.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  18. ^"Codes of Ethics Advocated by Groups Outside of Ontario".Trail Ethics.Trent University. January 16, 2007. Archived fromthe original(Web)on 2019-02-17.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  19. ^"The Impacts of Off-Road Vehicle Noise on Wildlife".Archived fromthe originalon 2010-12-25.Retrieved2009-01-19.
  20. ^"New Air Pollution Rules Target Off-Road Vehicles"(Web).Article.Environment News Service (ENS). September 17, 2002.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  21. ^"Final Rule for Cleaner Large Industrial Spark-Ignition Engines, Recreational Marine Diesel Engines, and Recreational Vehicles"(Web).US Environmental Protection Agency. March 6, 2006.Retrieved2007-06-24.
  22. ^"24556 Demonstrate knowledge of the safe operation of a light utility vehicle (LUV)"(PDF).NZQA.2019.
  23. ^"Standards for All Terrain Vehicles and Ban of Three-Wheeled All Terrain Vehicles; Proposed Rule".Consumer Product Safety Commission (Federal Register). 10 August 2006. Archived fromthe originalon 13 January 2008.Retrieved26 December2007.
  24. ^"How Many Wheels Did The Original ATV Have? – ATV Trail Reviews".24 August 2021.Retrieved2022-02-22.

Bibliography

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  • Allen, Jim; Weber, James J. (2021).The Four-Wheeler's Bible: The Complete Guide to Off-Road and Overland Adventure Driving(3rd ed.). Beverly, MA, USA: Motorbooks.ISBN9780760368053.
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