Old money

This article is about the socioeconomic term. For other uses, seeOld money (disambiguation).

Old moneyis "theinheritedwealthofestablishedupper-classfamilies (i.e.gentry,patriciate) "or" a person, family, or lineage possessing inherited wealth ".It is asocial classof the rich who have been able to maintain their wealth over multiple generations, often referring to perceived members of thede factoaristocracyin societies that historically lack an officially established aristocratic class (such as the United States), in contrast withnew moneywhose wealth has been acquired within its own generation.

Wealth and class

Wealth—assets held by an individual or by a household—provides an important dimension ofsocial stratificationbecause it can pass from generation to generation, ensuring that a family's offspring will remain financially stable. Families with "old money" use accumulated assets or savings to bridge interruptions in income, thus guarding against downwardsocial mobility.

"Old money" applies to those of theupper classwhose wealth separates them from lower social classes.

United States

According to anthropologistW. Lloyd Warner,the upper class in the United States during the 1930s was divided into the upper-upper and the lower-upper classes.The lower-upper were those who did not come from traditionally wealthy families. They earned their money from investments and business, rather thaninheritance.Examples includeJohn D. Rockefeller,whose father was a travelingpeddler;Cornelius Vanderbilt,whose father operated aferryinNew York Harbor;Henry Flagler,who was the son of a Presbyterian minister; andAndrew Carnegie,who was the son of a Scottish weaver. In contrast to thenouveau riche,whose riches were acquired in their own generation, the upper-upper class were families viewed as "quasi-aristocratic" and "high society".These families had been rich and prominent in thepolitics of the United Statesfor generations. In many cases, their prominence predated theAmerican Revolution(1765–1783), when their ancestors had accumulated fortunes as members of the eliteplanter class,or asmerchants,slave traders,ship-owners,orfur traders.In many cases, especially inVirginia,Maryland,and theCarolinas,the source of these families' wealth were vast tracts of land granted to their ancestors bythe Crownor acquired byheadrightduring thecolonial period.These planter class families were often related to each other through intermarriage for more than 300 years, and are sometimes known asAmerican gentry.They produced severalFounding Fathers of the United Statesand a number of earlypresidents of the United States.

After theAmerican Civil War(1861–1865), many in the upper-upper class saw their wealth greatly reduced. Their slaves becamefreedmen.Unionforces under GeneralsWilliam Tecumseh ShermanandPhilip Sheridanhad also cut wide swaths of destruction through portions of Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia. They destroyed crops, killed or confiscated livestock, burned barns and gristmills, and in some cases torchedplantation housesand even entire cities such asAtlanta.They were usingscorched earthtactics, designed to starve theConfederate States of Americainto submission. After theThirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution(1865) and theemancipationof the slaves, manyplantationswere converted tosharecropping.African American freedmen were working as sharecroppers on the same land which they had worked as slaves before the war. Despite the fact that their circumstances were greatly reduced, the enactment ofJim Crow lawsand thedisenfranchisementof freedblack peopleallowed many planter class families in theSouthern United Statesto regain their political prominence, if not their great wealth, followingReconstruction(1863–1877).

In the early 20th century, the upper-upper class were seen as more prestigious than the nouveau riche even if the nouveau riche had more wealth.During the late 19th century and early 20th century, the nouveau rich flaunted their wealth by buildingGilded Age mansionsthat emulated the palaces ofEuropean royalty,while old money was more conservative. American "Old money" families tend to adhere to variousMainline Protestantdenominations;EpiscopaliansandPresbyteriansare the most prevalent among them.

Early Colonial

• The Byrd Family of Virginia,FFV,is descended fromWilliam Byrd Iwho received a 1,200-acre (4.9 km²) grant on 27 October 1673 at thefall lineof theJames Riverthat would later become the site ofRichmond, Virginia.Byrd's sonWilliam Byrd IIofWestover Plantationwho inherited the land was an Americanplanterand author fromCharles City Countyincolonial Virginia.He expanded his holdings to approximately 179,000-acre (720 km²) and founded the City of Richmond.Although much of the family's wealth was squandered during the 18th century byWilliam Byrd IIIthrough gambling and bad investments, descendantRichard Evelyn Byrd Sr.became wealthy as an apple grower in theShenandoah Valleyand publisher of theWinchester Starnewspaper. He was elected to theVirginia House of Delegatesin 1906 and served asSpeakerfrom 1908 to 1914. His sonHarry Flood Byrdwas elected the 50thGovernor of Virginiain 1925, and later served in theUS Senateuntil his retirement in 1965. Byrd controlled aDemocraticpolitical machineknown as theByrd Organizationthat dominated Virginia politics for most of the 20th century.Byrd was succeeded in the US Senate by his sonHarry F. Byrd Jr.who served until 1981. The family also produced early Ohio political leader and jurist,Charles Willing Byrd,and polar explorer,Rear AdmiralRichard E. Byrd.
• TheCabot familyarrived in Salem from the Isle of Jersey in 1700 and made fortunes in shipping.George Cabotwas an American merchant, seaman, and politician fromMassachusetts.He representedMassachusettsin the U.S. Senate and was the presiding officer of the infamousHartford Convention.Samuel Cabot Jr.was an American businessman in theearly-nineteenth-century China Trade.James Elliot Cabotwas an American philosopher and author, born inBostontoSamuel Cabot Jr.,and Eliza Cabot.Edward Clarke Cabotwas an American architect and artist.Henry Cabot Lodgewas a member of thePorcellian Club,an AmericanRepublicanpolitician, historian, and statesman fromMassachusetts.He served in the United States Senate from 1893 to 1924 and is best known for his positions on foreign policy.At the age of 21,Godfrey Lowell Cabot(see Lowells below) founded theCabot Corporation,the largest producer of carbon black in the country.
• The Carter family ofCorotoman,Shirley,Sabine Hall,Nomony Hall,CleveandCarter's Grove,FFV,of Virginia is descended fromRobert "King" Carter,ofLancaster County,who was a planter, businessman andcolonistin Virginia and became one of the wealthiest men in thecoloniesaccumulating over 300,000 acres of land and more than 1,000 slaves. As President of theGovernor's Councilof theVirginia Colony,he was actingGovernor of Virginiafrom 1726 to 1727 after the death in office of GovernorHugh Drysdale.He acquired themoniker"King" due to his great wealth, political power, and autocratic business methods. His many notable descendants include:Robert Burwell,a member of the VirginiaHouse of Burgesses,Robert Carter III,who sat on theVirginia Governor's Council,Carter Braxton,a signer of Declaration of Independence,Mann Pagea Virginia delegate to theContinental Congressin 1777,Confederate States ArmyGeneralRobert E. Lee,Confederate Army first lieutenantRobert Randolph Carter,John Page,the 13th Governor of Virginia,Thomas Nelson Page,who served as US ambassador toItalyduring theWoodrow Wilsonadministration, and civil engineer and industrialistWilliam Nelson Page.U.S. PresidentJimmy Carteris descended from Robert "King" Carter's uncle, Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635.
• The Corbin Family,FFV,of Middlesex County, Virginia, beginning withHenry Corbinwas an emigrant from England who became a tobacco planter in the Virginia colony and served in both houses of theVirginia General Assembly,in theHouse of BurgessesrepresentingLancaster Countybefore the creation ofMiddlesex Countyon Virginia's Middle Neck, then on theGovernor's Council.The governor and council made Corbin a justice of theLancaster Countycourt in 1657.Lancaster County voters in both 1659 and 1660 elected Corbin as one of their representatives in theHouse of Burgesses,alongside the county's largest plantation owner,John Carter, Sr..His sonGawin Corbin (burgess)was prominent in political affairs. His daughterLaetitia Corbin LeemarriedRichard Lee IIofMachodoc Plantation,while another daughter Ann marriedWilliam Tayloe (the nephew).Gawin Corbin Sr.,son of the Burgess was a Virginia planter and politician who served in theHouse of BurgessesrepresentingMiddlesex County, Virginia.Richard Corbinwas a Virginia planter and politician who representedMiddlesex Countyin theHouse of Burgessesand theVirginia Governor's Council.Although a noted Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War (during which two brothers served in British forces), he considered himself a Virginian and two of his descendants of the same name also served in the Virginia General Assembly following the conflict.Hannah Lee Corbinwas an Americanwomen's rightsadvocate and member of theLee familyinVirginia.A controversial widow in her own time in part for her refusal to marry her paramour (with whom she had children) or conversion from theChurch of Englandto theBaptists,she may today be best known for asking that women be given the right to vote.John Tayloe Corbinwas a Virginia planter and politician who representedKing and Queen Countyin theHouse of Burgesses.The son of the powerful planterRichard Corbin,a member of the Governor's Council, he was likewise a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War (during which two brothers served in British forces), but remained in Virginia.

George and Martha Washington with their Grandchildren. George Washington Parke Custis, and Eleanor ParkeCustis

• TheCustis FamilyFFVdates back to the mid-seventeenth century, four members of the Custis family immigrated to the colony of Virginia: Anne,John Custis II,William II, and their uncle John I. John II was the most successful at establishing the family name into prominent society, advancing into the Virginia ruling class by serving as a sheriff, justice of the peace, surveyor, coroner, militia officer, member of the House of Burgess, and Councillor. John II also built a large mansion that he called Arlington. His descendants included his sonJohn Custis IIIand grandson John IV, who was born in August 1678.John Custis IVwas the father ofDaniel Parke Custis,Martha Dandridge Custis's first husband, Martha's Second husband wasGeorge Washington.Making his step grandchildren and wife America's First Inaugural Family
• TheDelano familyof Massachusetts and New York is descended from Philippe de Lannoy, who was born in 1602 to parents of French and Dutch descent. In the United States, members of the Delano family include U.S. presidentsFranklin Delano Roosevelt,Ulysses S. GrantandCalvin Coolidge,astronautAlan B. Shepard,and writerLaura Ingalls Wilder.Delano family forebears include the Pilgrims who chartered the Mayflower, seven of its passengers, and three signers of theMayflower Compact.
• TheGriswold Familyof Connecticut made their fortune in shipping, banking, railroads, and industry. They have been prominent in American politics, producing five governors and numerous senators and congressmen.
• TheHarrisonsofBerkley,FFV,of Virginia is an American political family, of theCommonwealth of Virginia,whose direct descendants include aFounding Fatherof the United States,Benjamin Harrison V,and threeU. S. presidents:William Henry Harrison,Benjamin Harrison,andAbraham Lincoln.The Virginia Harrison family consists primarily of two branches with origins in northern England. One branch, led by Benjamin Harrison I, journeyed by way ofBermudato Virginia before 1633 and settled along theJames Riverwhere they became wealthyplanters;they are often referred to as the James River Harrisons. Successive generations of this branch served in the legislature of the Colony of Virginia, including Benjamin V, who was a signatory of theDeclaration of Independenceand later governor of Virginia. This branch of the Harrison family produced President William Henry Harrison, Benjamin V's son, and President Benjamin Harrison, William Henry's grandson, as well as another Virginia governor,Albertis Harrison.The family also includes two Chicago mayors and members of the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. The other branch of the Virginia Harrisons emigrated from Britain toNew Englandin 1687 and moved south to theShenandoah Valleyof Virginia 50 years later; they were led by Isaiah Harrison. This branch most likely descended from an interim chaplain of theJamestown Colony,Rev. Thomas Harrison, who was kindred to the James River Harrisons, but by 1650 had returned to England. President Abraham Lincoln descended from the Shenandoah Valley Harrisons, as did entertainerElvis Presley.This branch of the family also included the founders ofHarrisonburgandDaytonand physicianJ. Hartwell Harrison,who was part of the medical team that accomplished the world's first successfulkidney transplantsurgery.
• TheLowell familyare descended from Boston colonists.John Lowellwas a delegate to theCongress of the Confederation,a judge of theCourt of Appeals in Cases of Captureunder theArticles of Confederation,aUnited States district judgeof theUnited States District Court for the District of Massachusettsand a United States circuit judge of theUnited States Circuit Court for the First Circuit.John Lowell Jr.was an American lawyer and influential member of theFederalist Partyin the early days of the United States of America.Francis Cabot Lowellbegan the fortune in shipping and later textiles. The family has produced several noteworthy individuals, includingAbbott Lawrence Lowell,who presided overHarvardfor 24 years.
• The Ogle Family ofBelairandOgle Hall,Maryland includingProvencial GovernorSamuel OgleandGovernorBenjamin Ogledescend from theBaronsOgle,prominentlanded gentryinNorthumberland,England, ofOgle CastleandBothal Castle,allied through marriage with the Manner's ofRutland,Cavendish familyofNewcastle,the premiere peerage, theBaron de Ros,and the ancientNormanHouse of Percy.
• TheRandolph family,FFV,is descended fromWilliam Randolph,an Americancolonistwho accumulated a vast fortune including over 20,000 acres (81 km2) of land as a planter and merchant, and played an important role in the history and government of the Englishcolony of Virginia.He arrived in Virginia sometime between 1669 and 1673 and married Mary Isham a few years later.Randolph's descendants have included many prominent Americans, including U.S. PresidentThomas Jefferson,U.S. Chief JusticeJohn Marshall,ConfederateGeneral,Robert E. Lee,Peyton Randolph,the firstPresident of the Continental Congress,andEdmund Randolph,who served as the seventhGovernor of Virginia,the secondUS Secretary of State,and the firstU.S. Attorney Generalas well as many other notable individuals in Virginia and U.S. politics.
• TheRoosevelt familyof Manhattan arrived from theNetherlandsas colonists in the 17th century and later became prominent in business and politics. Two distantly related branches of the family, fromOyster BayonLong IslandandHyde ParkinDutchess County,rose to global political prominence with the elections of PresidentsTheodore Roosevelt(1901–1909) and his fifth cousinFranklin D. Roosevelt(1933–1945), whose wife, First LadyEleanor Roosevelt,was Theodore's niece.
• TheTayloes,ofMount Airy,The Octagon House,Powhattan Hill,Buena Vista,theTayloe HouseinColonial Williamsburg,and later theAlabama,Canebrake,FFV,descended fromWilliam Tayloe (planter)who first held elected office in 1647 as High Sheriff ofYork County, Virginia.He married Elizabeth Kingsmill, daughter ofVirginia Companyproprietor Richard Kingsmill.William Tayloe (the nephew)built the Old House in Old Rappahannock County and married Ann Corbin (1664–1694), daughter of Hon.Henry Corbinand Alice (Eltonhead) Corbin, of "Buckingham House"Middlesex County,John Tayloe IIbuilt Mount Airy, importedDiomed,and after the death ofKing Cartertook over the moniker of Wealthiest Man/Family in Virginia.John Tayloe IIIlent his home in Washington, DC,The Octagon House,to PresidentJames Madisonand wifeDolly Madisonafter the British burnt theWhite HouseduringThe War of 1812.He foundedSt. John's Episcopal Church, Lafayette Squareand theWashington Jockey ClubwithCharles Carnan RidgelyofHampton,and bredSir Archie.His sons, all scions of the tidewater gentry, their mother the daughter ofBenjamin OgleofBelairandOgle Hall,descended from theBaronOgleofNorthumberland,allied through marriage with the Manners ofRutland,Cavendish familyofNewcastle,the premiere peerage, theBaron de Rosand ancientNormanHouse of Percy.John Tayloe IV served as amidshipmanon theUSSConstitution,Benjamin Ogle Tayloewas a member of thePorcellian Cluband then a prominent political activist in Washington, D.C., having begun his career asRichard Rush's personal secretary during his time asAmbassador to the Court of St. James,and built theBenjamin Ogle Tayloe HouseonLafayette Square.Edward Thornton Tayloewas a member of thePorcellian Club,served as a diplomat having begun his career asJoel Roberts Poinsett's personal secretary, and was rumored to beWilliam Henry Harrison's pick forSecretary of the Treasurybefore this untimely death, andHenry Augustine Tayloeco-founded theFair Grounds Race Coursewith French CreoleBernard de Marigny.While the foundation of their wealth was agricultural slave plantations, they exemplified gentry entrepreneurship by diversifying and vertically integrating; first shipbuilding to move the agricultural produce, then producing iron, smelting, at their furnacesBristol Iron WorksandNeabsco Iron Worksand mining their coal fields in Namejoy, Maryland, namely Tayloe's Neck, to build ships.

• 

  Arms of the Van Rensselaer family.

  TheVan Rensselaer familyof theManor of Rensselaerswyck,is a family ofDutchdescent that was prominent during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries in the area now known as thestate of New York.Members of this family played a critical role in the formation of the United States and served as leaders in business, politics, and society. Beginning withKiliaen van Rensselaer (merchant)was a Dutchdiamondandpearlmerchant fromAmsterdamwho was one of the founders and directors of theDutch West India Company,being instrumental in the establishment ofNew Netherland.He was granted theManor of Rensselaerswyckin what is now mainlyNew York'sCapital District.His estate remained throughout theDutchandBritishcolonial era and theAmerican Revolutionas a legal entity until the 1840s.Johan van Rensselaerwas the secondpatroonof theManor of Rensselaerswyck,was the eldest son ofKiliaen van Rensselaer,and his first wife, Hillegonda van Bylaer.

• 

  Arms of the Van Watervliet family.

  TheVan Everinghe van Watervliet family(eventually simplified and Anglicized to Van Every and Van Avery) wereDutch baronswho first amassed a fortune as brewers, land owners, and high governmental officials in the old country in the mid-16th Century. Migrating to North America in the mid-17th Century they continued to become prominent smiths,fur traders,and land owners from the founding ofBeverwijck,present day Albany, New York, through the American Revolution. The city ofWatervliet, New York,is likely named after the family's originalridderhofstede(knightly estate) in the County of Zeeland. The first members were granted a warrant as sole suppliers of arms and armor toFort Orange,were active in theAlbany ConventionduringLeisler's Rebellion,and were close associates of the Van Rensselaers. Later, one member took the Oath of Secrecy as aSon of Liberty,served as Chairman of theSchenectadyCommittee of Correspondenceand as a Senator in the newly-formedNew York Assembly.Several served as officers in the militia during the Revolution, including inVan Rensselaer's Regiment,and one served alongsideGeorge Washingtonfrom 1775-1780, including the bitter winter atValley Forgeand theCrossing of the Delaware.Later generations include industrialists, hoteliers, inventors, professional athletes, and writers, and share bloodlines with George Washington,John Adams,Benjamin Franklin,andPhilip Schuyler.

Late Colonial

• TheAstor familymade their fortune in the 18th century, through fur trading, real estate, the hotel industry, and other investments.
• TheForbes familyof Boston made their fortune in the shipping and later railroad industries as well as other investments. They have been a prominent wealthy family in the United States for 200 years.
• The Hartwick family is of mainlyEnglishandGermandescent, and their ancestry and fortune predates theAmerican Revolution.The Hartwicks have produced several politicians and military generals, such asEdward Hartwick.ByWorld War I,the family-controlled most of the lumber in the United States. The Hartwick's philanthropic works include the founding ofHartwick College,andHartwick Pines State Park.

Early National Era

• TheDu Pont familyfortune began in 1803, but they became an extraordinarily wealthy family by sellinggunpowderduring theAmerican Civil War.ByWorld War I,the DuPont family produced virtually all American gunpowder. In 1968, Ferdinand Lundberg declared the Du Pont fortune to be America's largest family fortune.As of 2008E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Companyranked 81st on the Fortune 500 list of the largest U.S. corporations.
• TheMellon familymade their fortune in the banking business. TheMellon Bankwas founded in 1869 byThomas Mellon.Under the direction of his son,Andrew Mellonthe family amassed one of theGilded Age's largest fortunes. They became principal investors and majority owners ofGulf Oil(which merged withChevron Corporationin 1985),Alcoa(since 1886),The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review(since 1970),Koppers(since 1912), andNew York Shipbuilding(1899–1968), as well as other major firms. The family bank merged with the Bank of New York and continues today asBNY Mellon.

• TheVan Leer familyof Pennsylvania made their fortune in the iron business. They have been prominent in academia, business, and American politics. Descendants include successful entrepreneurs, governors, congressmen, university presidents, and university founders.
• TheWhitney familyis an American family notable for their business enterprises, social prominence, wealth and philanthropy, founded by John Whitney, who came fromLondon,EnglandtoWatertown, Massachusettsin 1635. The Whitney family are members of theEpiscopal Church.

Although many "old money" individuals do not rank as high on the list ofForbes 400richest Americans as their ancestors did, their wealth continues to grow. Many families increased their holdings by investment strategies such as the pooling of resources.For example, theRockefeller family's estimated net worth of $1 billion in the 1930s grew to $8.5 billion by 2000—that is, not adjusted for inflation. In 60 years, four of the richest families in the United States increased their combined $2–4 billion in 1937 to $38 billion without holding large shares in emerging industries. When adjusted for inflation, the actual dollar wealth of many of these families has shrunk since the '30s.

From aprivate wealth manager's perspective, "old money" can be classified into two: active "old money" and passive "old money". The former includes inheritors who, despite the inherited wealth at their disposal or that which they can access in the future, choose to pursue their own career or set up their own businesses.Paris HiltonandSir Stelios Haji-Ioannoudid this. On the other hand, passive "old money" are the idle rich or those who are not wealth producers.

"Old money" contrasts with thenouveau richeandparvenus.These fall under the category "new money" (those not from traditionally wealthy families).

Europe

TheRothschild family,as an example, established finance houses across Europe from the 18th century and was ennobled by theHabsburgemperor andQueen Victoria.Throughout the 19th century, they controlled the largest fortune in the world, in today's terms many hundreds of billions. The family has, at least to some extent, maintained its wealth for over two centuries.

On the other hand, inBritain,the term generally exclusively refers to thenobility- that is, thepeerageandlanded gentry- who traditionally live off the land inherited paternally.The British concept is analogous to good lineage and it is not uncommon to find someone with "old money" who is actually poor orinsolvent.By 2001, however, those belonging to this category—the aristocratic landowners—are still part of the wealthiest list in the United Kingdom.For instance, theDuke of Westminster,by way of hisGrosvenor estate,owns large swaths of properties in London that include 200 acres ofBelgraviaand 100 acres ofMayfair.There is also the case ofViscount Portman,who is the owner of 100 acres of land north ofOxford Street.

Many countries had wealth-basedrestrictions on voting.In France, out of a nation of 27 million people, only 80,000 to 90,000 were allowed to vote in the1820 French legislative electionand the richest one-quarter of them had two votes.

See also

• American gentry
• Aristocracy
• Black elite
• Boston Brahmin
• First Families of Virginia
• Gentry
• Grand Burgher(GermanGroßbürger)
• Hanseaten (class)
• High culture
• La Distinction
• Landed gentry
• Mentifact
• Nobility
• Nouveau riche
• Old Philadelphians
• Parvenu
• Patrician (post-Roman Europe)
• Preppy
• Social environment
• Social Register
• Social status
• Status–income disequilibrium
• Symbolic capital
• The Four Hundred (Gilded Age)
• Rentier capitalism
• White Anglo-Saxon Protestant

Further reading

• Fisher, Nick, and Hans Van Wees, eds.Aristocracy in Antiquity: Redefining Greek and Roman Elites(ISD LLC, 2015).
• Janssens, Paul, and Bartolomé Yun-Casalilla, eds.European Aristocracies and Colonial Elites: Patrimonial Management Strategies and Economic Development, 15th–18th Centuries(Routledge,2017).
• McDonogh, Gary Wray.Good families of Barcelona: A social history of power in the industrial era(Princeton University Press,2014).
• Pincon, Michel, and Monique Pincon-Charlot.Grand Fortunes. Dynasties and Forms of Wealth in France(1998)excerpt
• Porter, John.The vertical mosaic: An analysis of social class and power in Canada(1965).
• Rothacher, Albrecht.The Japanese power elite(2016).
• Schutte, Kimberly.Women, Rank, and Marriage in the British Aristocracy, 1485–2000: An Open Elite?(2014).
• Stone, Lawrence.An open elite?: England, 1540–1880(1986).

United States

• Aldrich, Nelson W. (1996).Old Money: The Mythology of Wealth in America.New York:Allworth Press.ISBN9781880559642.
• Allen, Irving Lewis. "WASP—From Sociological Concept to Epithet",Ethnicity2.2 (1975): 153–162.
• Baltzell, E. Digby.Philadelphia Gentlemen: The Making of a New Upper Class(1958).
• Beckert, Sven.The monied metropolis: New York City and the consolidation of the American bourgeoisie, 1850–1896(2003).
• Brooks, David.Bobos in paradise: The new upper class and how they got there(2010)
• Davis, Donald F. "The Price of Conspicious [sic] Production: The Detroit Elite and the Automobile Industry, 1900–1933."Journal of Social History16.1 (1982): 21–46.online
• Farnum, Richard. "Prestige in the Ivy League: Democratization and discrimination at Penn and Columbia, 1890–1970." in Paul W. Kingston and Lionel S. Lewis, eds.The high-status track: Studies of elite schools and stratification(1990).
• Foulkes, Nick.High Society – The History of America's Upper Class,(Assouline,2008)ISBN2759402886.
• Fraser, Steve and Gary Gerstle, eds.Ruling America: A History of Wealth and Power in a Democracy,Harvard University Press,2005,ISBN0-674-01747-1.
• Ghent, Jocelyn Maynard, and Frederic Cople Jaher. "The Chicago Business Elite: 1830–1930. A Collective Biography."Business History Review50.3 (1976): 288–328.online
• Hood, Clifton.In Pursuit of Privilege: A History of New York City's Upper Class and the Making of a Metropolis(2016). Covers 1760–1970.
• Ingham, John N.The Iron Barons: A Social Analysis of an American Urban Elite, 1874–1965(1978)
• Jaher, Frederic Cople, ed.The Rich, the Well Born, and the Powerful: Elites and Upper Classes in History(1973), essays by scholars
• Jaher, Frederick Cople.The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Chicago, Charleston, and Los Angeles(1982).
• Lundberg, Ferdinand:The Rich and the Super-Rich:A Study in the Power of Money Today(1968)
• McConachie, Bruce A. "New York operagoing, 1825–50: creating an elite social ritual."American Music(1988): 181–192.online
• Maggor, Noam.Brahmin Capitalism: Frontiers of Wealth and Populism in America's First Gilded Age(Harvard UP, 2017); 304 pp.online review
• Ostrander, Susan A. (1986).Women of the Upper Class.Temple University Press.ISBN978-0-87722-475-4.
• Phillips, Kevin P.Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich,Broadway Books2003,ISBN0-7679-0534-2.
• Story, Ronald. (1980)The forging of an aristocracy: Harvard & the Boston upper class, 1800-1870
• Williams, Peter W.Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression(2016), especially in New York City