Wikipedia

Pan-Mongolism

Pan-Mongolismis anirredentistidea that advocates cultural and political solidarity ofMongols.[1][2]The proposed territory, called "Greater Mongolia" (Mongolian:Даяар Монгол,Dayaar Mongol) or "Whole Mongolia" (Хамаг Монгол) usually includes the independent state ofMongolia,[3]the Chinese region ofInner Mongolia,and the Russian region ofBuryatia.[4]Sometimes the autonomous republicTuva,theAltai Republicand parts ofXinjiang,Zabaykalsky Krai,andIrkutsk Oblastare included as well.[5]As of 2006,all areas in Greater Mongolia (orMongol heartland) except Mongolia have non-Mongol majorities.[4]

Regions commonly associated with Mongol irredentism
Concentrations ofMongolic peoples(red) compared to the extent of theMongol Empire(outlined in orange)

The nationalist movement emerged in the 20th century in response to thecollapse of the Qing dynastyand the possibility of an independent Mongolian state. After theRed Armyhelped to establish theMongolian People's Republic,Mongolian foreign policy prioritised seeking recognition of independence over territorial expansion. After the 1990Mongolian Revolutionended Communist rule in Mongolia, a number of organizations have emerged that promote pan-Mongolism, but they have little popular support.

History

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Early 20th century

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TheQing dynasty(1644–1912)controlledmodern-day Mongolia,Tuva,Western Mongolia, andInner Mongolia.[6]However, before thePeople's Republic of China(1949–present) greatly expanded the territory ofInner Mongoliato its present shape, Inner Mongolia only referred to the Mongol areas within the Chinese provinces ofNingxia,Suiyuan,andChahar.The Mongols inManchuria,known then as Xing'an but now asHulunbuir,were considered to be ethnically distinct from both the Inner and Outer Mongol tribes, and this region was called "Eastern Mongolia".[7]Inner Mongolia, which had joined the Qing in 1636 as allies rather than conquered subjects,[7]were directly administered and taxed by the Qing, and given access to the Qing aristocracy.[8]Outer Mongoliawas given more autonomy,nomadicrights, and its own Buddhist center.[8][9]Having colonizedBuryatiain the 17th century,[10]and theAmurBasin in 1862, theImperial Russiangovernment pursued policies in support of a "long-range expansionist policy intended to one day strip control of Mongolia away from China".[9]

At the turn of the 20th century, the Qing, reasoning that the Russians would have a harder time annexing territory settled by many Han people, reduced its many restrictions on Han settlement within Qing territory. This policy spurred an anti-Chinese Greater Mongolia nationalism among a few Mongols.[9]

In 1911, Mongoliadeclaredits independence and founded theBogd Khaganate.[citation needed]

When the Qing dynastycollapsedwith establishment of the newRepublic of China(ROC) in 1911, majority of the Inner Mongolian principalities allied themselves with the Outer Mongols rather than with the MongolianBogd Khaganate.[11]China's early republican leaders used slogans likeFive Races Under One Union,democracy, andmeritocracyto try to persuade all of the Mongols to join the new republic. However, they were never really able to hide their condescension towards the frontier peoples.[12]In the summer of 1911, Mongolia's princes had already decided to declare independence and turn towards Russia for support. They gathered with Russian representatives inUlan Batorand persuaded Russia to defend Mongol autonomy within China. The Russians understood this autonomy to apply only in Outer Mongolia, but the princes interpreted it as sanctifying a Greater Mongolia of Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Eastern Mongolia, andTannu Uriankhai(Tuva).[13]

The Inner Mongolian princeGungsangnorbucorresponded with theautonomous governmentin Ulaanbaatar about the possibility of a Greater Mongolia. They found that they had sharp disagreements about such a state, owing to the Inner Mongols' agricultural lifestyle and orientation towards China, contrasted with the Outer Mongols' nomadic lifestyle and orientation towards Russia.[6]

Mongols have at times advocated for the historical Oirat Dzungar Mongol area of Dzungaria in northern Xinjiang, to be annexed to the Mongolian state in the name of Pan-Mongolism.[citation needed]

Legends grew among the remaining Oirats that Amursana had not died after he fled to Russia, but was alive and would return to his people to liberate them from Manchu Qing rule and restore the Oirat nation. Prophecies had been circulating about the return of Amursana and the revival of the Oirats in the Altai region.[14][15]The Oirat KalmykJa Lamaclaimed to be a grandson of Amursana and then claimed to be a reincarnation of Amursana himself, preaching anti-Manchu propaganda in western Mongolia in the 1890s and calling for the overthrow of the Qing dynasty.[16]Ja Lama was arrested and deported several times. However, he returned to the Oirat Torghuts inAltay(in Dzungaria) in 1910 and in 1912 he helped the Outer Mongolians mount an attack on the last Qing garrison atKovd,where the Manchu Amban was refusing to leave and fighting the newly declared independent Mongolian state.[17][18][19][20][21][22]The Manchu Qing force was defeated and slaughtered by the Mongols after Khovd fell.[23][24]

Ja Lama told the Oirat remnants in Xinjiang: "I am a mendicant monk from the Russian Tsar's kingdom, but I am born of the great Mongols. My herds are on the Volga river, my water source is the Irtysh. There are many hero warriors with me. I have many riches. Now I have come to meet with you beggars, you remnants of the Oirats, in the time when the war for power begins. Will you support the enemy? My homeland is Altai, Irtysh, Khobuk-sari, Emil, Bortala, Ili, and Alatai. This is the Oirat mother country. By descent, I am the great-grandson of Amursana, the reincarnation of Mahakala, owning the horse Maralbashi. I am he whom they call the hero Dambijantsan. I came to move my pastures back to my own land, to collect my subject households and bondservants, to give favour, and to move freely."[25][26]

Ja Lama built an Oirat fiefdom centered around Kovd,[27]he and fellow Oirats from Altai wanted to emulate theoriginal Oirat empireand build another grand united Oirat nation from the nomads of western China and Mongolia,[28]but was arrested by Russian Cossacks and deported in 1914 on the request of the Mongolian government after the local Mongols complained of his excesses, and out of fear that he would create an Oirat separatist state and divide them from the Khalkha Mongols.[29]Ja Lama returned in 1918 to Mongolia and resumed his activities and supported himself by extorting passing caravans,[30][31][32]but was assassinated in 1922 on the orders of the new Communist Mongolian authorities underDamdin Sükhbaatar.[33][34][35]

The part Buryat MongolTransbaikalian CossackAtamanGrigory Semyonovdeclared a "Great Mongol State" in 1918 and had designs to unify the Oirat Mongol lands, portions of Xinjiang, Transbaikal, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Tannu Uriankhai, Khovd, Hu-lun-pei-erh and Tibet into one Mongolian state.[36]

From 1919 to 1921, a Chinese army led byXu Shuzhengoccupied Outer Mongolia.[37]This period ended when White Russian General BaronRoman von Ungern-Sternbergprotected independence of Mongolia, who deported the Chinese occupation army from Outer Mongolia[38]The Han percentage of the industrial labor force dropped from 63 percent to 10 percent in 1932.[39]

World War II

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TheSoviet-ledOuter Mongolian Revolution of 1921fixed independent Mongolia's present borders to include only Outer Mongolia,[12]because of the Soviets' needs for abuffer staterather than a vaguefrontier.[7]The Buryat MongolAgvan Dorzhievtried advocating for Oirat Mongol areas like Tarbagatai, Ili, and Altai to get added to the Outer Mongolian state.[40]Out of concern that China would be provoked, this proposed addition of the Oirat Dzungaria to the new Outer Mongolian state was rejected by the Soviets.[41]The unsatisfied leaders of Outer Mongolia would often encouraged and supportvigilanteswho attempted toethnically cleansetheHan Chinesefrom Inner and Eastern Mongolia;[12][verification needed]many failed rebel leaders fled to Outer Mongolia.[7]After theJapanese invasion of Chinain 1937, the Japanese installed thepuppetMengjianggovernment in Inner Mongolia, andManchukuoto include Eastern Mongolia. Imperial Japanese policy flirted with pan-Mongolism as a weapon against the Chinese,[3]but it maintained the traditional Chinese political divisions of the Mongols, as its main focus was to promote Japanese, rather than Mongolian, language and culture.[42]During the Japanese occupation,Soviet–Japanese border conflictspit Mongols on either side of the Sino-Mongolian border against one another, and according to one scholar "finalized the permanent separation of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia".[43]: 14 Nonetheless, warpropagandaby the Soviet Union and Outer Mongolia encouraged Inner and Eastern Mongolians to fight against the Japanese to create a Greater Mongolia.[7]PrinceDemchugdongrub,operating from Eastern Mongolia, was a supporter of Pan-Mongolism and aJapanese collaborator.[44][45]

In 1943, the BritishForeign and Commonwealth Officepredicted that theSoviet Unionwould promote the idea of a Greater Mongolia to detach China's Inner Mongolia and East Mongolia from Chinese influence.[46]A year later, the then-Soviet satelliteTuvan People's Republicwas annexed by into theRussian SFSR.During theSoviet invasion of Manchuriain August 1945, Outer Mongolian troops occupied both Inner and Eastern Mongolia, and Japanese collaboratist leaders likeDe Wangwere kidnapped to Outer Mongolia to be inculcated with pan-Mongolist ideals. Perceiving an imminent threat to China's territorial integrity,Chiang Kai-sheksigned an agreement with the Soviets during the Mongolian occupation which gave Chinese recognition of Outer Mongolian independence. In return for the fulfillment of this longtime Soviet foreign policy goal, the agreement stated that Mongolian independence would only be effective "within [Outer Mongolia's] existing frontiers". The Outer Mongolian troops subsequently withdrew from China.[42]In 1947, Chiang renewed his claim on Outer Mongolia in response to alleged Mongolian incursions into ChineseXinjiangduring thePei-ta-shan Incident.[39]

1949–1990

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TheChinese Communist Revolutionsaw thePeople’s Republic of Chinarecognition of Mongolian independence, and promised a new era of communist fraternity between the Chinese, Mongolian, and Soviet governments.[39]In the same year, Soviet diplomatAnastas Mikoyanvisited the Chinese Communist headquarters inXibaipoto negotiate a new Sino-Soviet treaty.Chairman of the Chinese Communist PartyMao Zedonginquired about the possibility of a Greater Mongolia under Chinese control; Soviet premierJoseph Stalinreplied, through Mikoyan, that since Outer Mongolia would never voluntarily give up its independence, the only way a Greater Mongolia would come about would be through the loss of Chinese territory. Mao subsequently abandoned any hope of a Chinese-led Greater Mongolia.[47]China and the Soviet Union applied different ethnic policies to their Mongol minorities. While the Soviet Union encouraged local identities - Buryat instead of Buryat-Mongol, andKalmykinstead of Kalmyk-Mongol, China encouraged its Mongols to deemphasize their tribal and local identities and to identify simply as "Mongol".[43]: 182 The Mongolian communist government promoted the idea that all Mongols should be assimilated to the Khalkha subgroup, rejecting the idea of an inclusive Greater Mongolia state as disloyal to Mongolia.[43]: 136 

China designed the entireXinjiang,including former Oirat Mongol Dzungar territory in Dzungaria as "Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region" on October 1, 1955. During the early 1950s, Mongolian leaderYumjaagiin Tsedenbalonce visited China to ask for aid in grants and labor.[39]China and the Soviet Union also collaborated to host pan-Mongolian festivals between Inner Mongolia and theMongolian People's Republic.However, theCommunist Party of the Soviet Unionforbade celebrations ofGenghis Khanbecause of negative Russian attitudes towards theMongol conquests.[48][49]TheSino-Soviet splitfrom 1960 led Mongolia to align with the power they perceived as less threatening, i.e. the USSR, and to publish provocative pan-Mongol pieces in the Mongolian state press. During the 1980s, China-Mongolia relations improved with the exchange ofMongolian wrestlingteams andMikhail Gorbachev's pledge to withdraw Soviet troops from Mongolia.[39]

1990–present

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Further information:Inner Mongolian independence movement

After theMongolian Revolutionin 1990 brought about a "truly independent" Mongolia apart from Soviet influence, both China and Russia expressed concerns that the pan-Mongol nationalism that was flourishing in Mongolia could penetrate into their borderlands.[5]A surge in pan-Mongol sentiment resulted in a series of "Unite the Three Mongolias" conferences inUlan Bator,as well as government-funded organizations for "international Mongol cultural development".[50]In 1992, Mongolia's foreign ministry published an extensive list of territory it claimed to have "lost" to various areas in China and Russia in border demarcations in 1915, 1932, 1940, 1957, 1962, and 1975.[3]At the same time, three main criticisms of pan-Mongolism emerged in Mongolia. The first emphasized Mongolian nationalism, which argued that Mongolia needed to integrate its existing non-Mongol minorities, such as itsKazakhs,rather than to expand outside of its borders. The second expressed a belief in the superiority of theKhalkhaMongols as the most racially pure Mongols ( "Khalkha-centrism" ), looking down on the Buryat and Inner Mongols as Russian and Chinese "half-breeds", respectively.[43]: 137 The third criticism noted that the political power of those within the current borders of Mongolia would be diluted in a Greater Mongolia.[51]Khalkha centric nationalists discriminate against Oirat and Buryats from Russia and Inner Mongols from China, viewing them as agents of Russia and China respectively.[52][53][54][55]

In 1994, China and Mongolia signed a treaty wherein both promised to respect each other'sterritorial integrity.[39]In the same year, theInner Mongoliabranch of theChinese Communist Partyexplicitly repudiated and condemned the idea of a Greater Mongolia, citing the threat to China's unity and the likely dominance of Mongolia in such a union.[3]Because of the existence of an independent Mongolian state, Inner Mongols have generally not aspired to an independent state of their own, and what little separatist sentiment in Inner Mongolia aspires to union with independent Mongolia.[43]: 3 The feelings are not reciprocated, as the history and geography of China are not taught in Mongolian schools, and knowledge of the Inner Mongols in Mongolia is low.[43]: 183 Similarly to the Inner Mongolian government, high-ranking Buryat officials have reacted to the Greater Mongolia idea by rejecting that Buryats are Mongols at all.[43]: 178 Since the normalization of Sino-Mongolian relations in 1994, the Mongolian government does not support Greater Mongolian nationalism, but it tolerates organizations in Mongolia which do, such as the Mongolian newspaperIl Tovchuu.[56]Various small organizations in Mongolia advocate a Greater Mongolia.[39]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^Kaplonski, Christopher (2004).Truth, History, and Politics in Mongolia.Psychology Press. p. 15.
  2. ^Black, Cyril; Dupree, Louis; Endicott-West, Elizabeth; Naby, Eden (1991).The Modernization of Inner Asia.M.E. Sharpe. p. 193.
  3. ^abcdHodder, Dick; Lloyd, Sarah; McLachlan, Keith (1998).Land-locked States of Africa and Asia.Vol. 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 150.
  4. ^abSteiner-Khamsi, Gita; Stolpe, Ines (2006).Educational Import: Local Encounters with Global Forces in Mongolia.Macmillan. p.12.
  5. ^abGarthoff, Raymond (1994).The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations at the End of the Cold War.Brookings Institution Press.p. 670.
  6. ^abAdle, Chahryar; Palat, Madhavan; Tabyshalieva, Anara (2005).Towards the Contemporary Period: From the Mid-nineteenth to the End of the Twentieth Century.Vol. 6. UNESCO. p. 361.
  7. ^abcdeRosinger, Lawrence (1971).The State of Asia: A Contemporary Survey.Ayer Publishing. pp. 103–105, 108.
  8. ^abMiller, Alekseĭ; Rieber, Alfred (2004).Imperial Rule.Central European University Press. p.197.
  9. ^abcKotkin, Stephen; Elleman, Bruce (2000). "Sino-Russian Competition over Outer Mongolia".Mongolia in the Twentieth Century.M.E. Sharpe. pp. 28, 30.
  10. ^Hudgins, Sharon (2004).The Other Side of Russia: A Slice of Life in Siberia and the Russian Far East.Texas A&M University Press. p. 126.
  11. ^Tachibana, M. Inner Mongolia in the Mongol history of the 20th century: on the number of khoshuuns recognized Mongolian subjection. In: Mongolyn Tusgaar Togtnol ba Mongolchuud. Ulaanbaatar, 2012, p. 271 (in Mongolian)
  12. ^abcEsherick, Joseph; Kayalı, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006).Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World.Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 246, 249–251.
  13. ^Paine, S. C. M. (1996).Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier.M.E. Sharpe. p. 301.
  14. ^Znamenski 2011,pp. 27, 28, 29.
  15. ^Universität Bonn. Ostasiatische Seminar 1982.p. 164.
  16. ^Lattimore & Nachukdorji 1955,p. 57.
  17. ^Croner 2009,p. 11.
  18. ^Croner 2010,p. 11.
  19. ^Pegg 2001,p. 268.
  20. ^ed. Sinor 1990,p. 5.
  21. ^Baabar 1999,p. 139.
  22. ^Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn Baabar 1999,p. 139.
  23. ^Mongolia Society 1970,p. 17.
  24. ^Mongolia Society 1970,p. 17.
  25. ^Perdue 2009,p. 493.
  26. ^Palmer 2011,p. 59.
  27. ^Dupree & Naby 1994,p. 55.
  28. ^Znamenski 2011,p. 40.
  29. ^Znamenski 2011,p. 41.
  30. ^Andreyev 2003,p. 139.
  31. ^Andreyev 2014,p. 285,
  32. ^Znamenski 2011,p. 138.
  33. ^Znamenski 2011,p. 141.
  34. ^Sanders 2010,p. 188.
  35. ^Morozova 2009,p. 39.
  36. ^Paine 1996,pp. 316-7.
  37. ^Palmer, James (2011).The Bloody White Baron.Basic Books. p. 123.
  38. ^Kuzmin, S.L. Baron Ungerny Tuukh: Uneniig Dakhin Sergeesen Turshilt [History of Baron Ungern: an Experience of Reconstruction]. Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Ulsyn ShUA-iin Tuukhiin Khureelen – OKhU-yn ShUA-iin Dorno Dakhin Sudlalyn Khureelen Publ., 2013, p.208-459 (in Mongolian)
  39. ^abcdefgRossabi, Morris (2005). "Sino-Mongolian Relations".Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists.University of California Press. pp.226–228, 232, 242.ISBN9781417585045.
  40. ^Andreyev 2014,p. 274.
  41. ^Andreyev 2014,p. 275.
  42. ^abHeissig, Walther (1966).The Lost Civilization: The Mongols Rediscovered.Basic Books. pp. 186, 193 202–203.
  43. ^abcdefgBulag, Uradyn (1998).Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia.Clarendon Press.
  44. ^Wang 97
  45. ^Demchugdongrub "used to represent the Mongolian nation's inspirations for independence and liberation." QuotedinLiu 132
  46. ^Liu, Xiaoyuan (2010).Recast All Under Heaven: Revolution, War, Diplomacy, and Frontier China in the 20th Century.Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 175.
  47. ^Heinzig, Dieter (2004).The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950.M.E. Sharpe. p. 146.
  48. ^Forsyth, James (1994).A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990.Cambridge University Press. pp. 356–358.
  49. ^Ong, Russell (2002).China's Security Interests in the post-Cold War Era.Psychology Press. p. 38.
  50. ^Sanders, Alan (2010).Historical Dictionary of Mongolia.Scarecrow Press. pp. 153–155.
  51. ^Diener, Alexander. "Mongols, Kazakhs, and Mongolian Territorial Identity: Competing Trajectories of Nationalization".Central Eurasian Studies Review.4(1): 19–24.
  52. ^Bulag, Uradyn Erden (1998).Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia(illustrated ed.). Clarendon Press. p. 139.ISBN0198233574.Retrieved1 February2014.
  53. ^Bulag, Uradyn Erden (1998).Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia(illustrated ed.). Clarendon Press. p. 93.ISBN0198233574.Retrieved1 February2014.
  54. ^Kaplonski, Christopher (2004).Truth, History and Politics in Mongolia: Memory of Heroes.Routledge. p. 41.ISBN1134396732.Retrieved1 February2014.
  55. ^Reid, Anna (2009).The Shaman's Coat: A Native History of Siberia(reprint ed.). Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 70.ISBN978-0802719171.Retrieved1 February2014.
  56. ^Sheng, Lijun (2011).China's Dilemma: The Taiwan Issue.I.B. Tauris. p. 45.

Sources

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