Parantaka II(r. 958 – 973 CE) was aCholaemperor. He is also known asSundara Chola[clarification needed]as he was considered an epitome of male beauty.[2][3][4]He was the son ofArinjaya Cholaand queen Kalyani, a princess of Vaidumba family.[5][6][7]Parantaka II ascended the Chola throne despite the fact that his cousinMadurantaka Uttama Chola,the son ofGandaraditya Chola(the elder brother ofArinjaya Chola) was alive and he had equal if not more claim to the Chola throne.[8]During his reign, Parantaka Sundara Chola defeated the Pandyas and Ceylon[citation needed]and then recaptured theTondaimandalamfromRashtrakutas.
| Parantaka II | |
|---|---|
| Rajakesari Varman, Maduraikonda Rajakesari Varman, Pon Maaligai Thunjiya Thevar | |
| Chola Emperor | |
| Reign | 958 CE – 973 CE |
| Predecessor | Gandaraditya Chola |
| Successor | Uttama Chola |
| Co-Regent of theChola Empire | |
| Reign | 957 CE (few months) |
| Emperor | Arinjaya Chola |
| Predecessor | Gandaraditya Chola |
| Reign | 955 CE – 958 CE |
| Emperor | Gandaraditya Chola |
| Successor | Aditya II |
| Born | Thanjavur,Chola Empire(modern dayTamil Nadu,India) |
| Died | 980 CE Kanchipuram,Chola Empire(Modern dayTamil Nadu,India) |
| Empress | Vanavan Madevi |
| Issue | Aditya II Kundavai Rajaraja I |
| Dynasty | Chola |
| Father | Arinjaya |
| Mother | Kalyani (princess of Vaidumba family)[1] |
| Religion | Hinduism |
When Parantaka II became king, theCholakingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality. ThePandyasin the south had revived their fortunes and had defeated the Chola armies and occupied their ancestral lands.
During Parantaka II's reign, the foundations were laid for the success of the Chola Empire a generation later. A few territories in the north were recovered. ThePandyanruler Vira Pandya was defeated andMaduraiwas taken. An expedition was made to gain control of Sri Lanka but it was not successful.[9]Parantaka II waged war againstRashtrakutasand successfully regained Tondaimandalam.
Early life
editAccording to the Anbil plates Arinjaya was succeeded by his son. After coming to power Sundara Chola aka Parantaka II first directed his attention to the south against Vira Pandya, who had repulsed Gandaraditya's attempt to restore Chola supremacy in the Pandya country.[10]
Pandyan War
edit
Immediately after becoming king, Parantaka II's attention was directed towards the growing strength of thePandyasin the south. Vira Pandya, having repulsedGandaraditya'sattempts to restore Chola supremacy in thePandyan kingdom,was ruling as an independent potentate. The invading Chola army met the Pandyas at Chevur.
The Leydencopperplate inscriptionstell us in that war, "Parantaka II caused rivers of blood to flow". Other inscriptions mention that Parantaka and his young son,Aditya Karikalan(also referred to as Aditha II) defeated Vira Pandya and made him flee to the hills surrounding the battlefield.[11]The young son Aditha, who took to the battlefield at the age of "twelve" and who was a "very abhimanyu" in valour, is profusely praised for having conducted himself in battlefield with as much ease as he was at "military training sessions".
It is also possible thatAditya Karikalankilled Vira Pandya in that battle. Aditha's inscriptions use the epithet "Vira Pandyan Thalai Konda Adithha Karikalan"-"...took the head of Vira Pandya ".[citation needed]After the battle of Chevur, Parantaka II's armies continued their thrust into the Pandya country. The Pandya king had the Sinhalese kingMahinda IVas his ally and the Lankan troops supported the Pandya army in the battlefield c. 959 CE. Parantaka II's armies also invaded Lanka to neutralise this support. The especially wicked nature of this coalition is noted by chola panegyrists to be "wicked force of age of kali, that were duly uprooted by the king.". As a procedure for de-recognizing the rogue kingdoms Parantaka II also seized the royal insignia of pandyans like fish emblem, throne, gem studded crown and ancient pearl necklace.
Sundara Chola called himselfMaduraikonda Rajakesari,that is the Royal Lion who took Madurai andMadhurantaka(destroyer of Madurai) in order to commemorate his victories over the Pandyas.[12]
Although the Chola armies won the battle, the war was still not won. Parantaka II did not succeed in re-establishing the Chola power over the Pandya lands.
Success against Rashtrakutas (Recovery of Tondaimandalam)
editParantaka II next concentrated in his war againstRashtrakutas.Some documents provide an interesting account of military acumen and gallantry exhibited during the war by a certain chola commander belonging to one of the 98 divisions of troop velaikkaras. The commander who is praised to be a devotee at feet of lord at thillai and who was "a very murugan at war", is credited to have on two occasions almost singlehandedly pulverized big battalions of the enemy thereby causing their defeat. This commander who is glorified in these deccan wars is at the instance of Lord finally given up his uniform to become a saint at tirruvottriyur and take the name ottriyur atikalar there upon producing some very good works on saiva siddantam prior to attaining Lord's beatitude.
Sri Lankan Expedition
editSundara Chola Parantaka also waged war against the Sinhala ruler inSri Lanka.The expedition was led by many of his generals and his relative theIrukkuvelchief Parantaka Siriyavelar. Parāntaka was launching a new invasion of Ceylon, defeating Udaya's forces, and pillaging the countryside. But Udaya retreated southward with the Pandyan regalia into the wilds of Rohaņa; and the frustrated Chola forces had to depart without them.However this expedition did not end well for theCholas.[13][14]
Aditya II’s (Karikala's) Assassination
editParantaka II's last days appear to have been clouded by a personal tragedy, as his son andparakesiAditya IIwas assassinated by a group of conspirators. The Udayarkudi inscription, made by one Bharathan alias Vyazha Gajamallan, names Soman, Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan as the conspirators/traitors responsible for the assassination.[15][16]
There is also a conjecture by one R.V. Srinivasan made in 1971 thatRajaraja Iand his sisterKundavaiwere responsible for the killing.[17]However, no physical evidence to support this claim has been found to date.
Uttama’s ascension
editAfter the assassination of Aditya II, it seems thatUttamaforced Parantaka II to make him the heir-apparent. Arulmozhivarman (orRajaraja I), Parantaka II's second son did not protest, anxious to avoid a civil war. It was apparently part of the compromise that Uttama was to succeed the throne only if he accepted to be succeeded, not by his own children but by Arulmozhivarman. The Thiruvalangadu copperplate inscription states that Madhurantaka Uttama Chola made Arulmozhi the heir-apparent.
Parantaka II's death and legacy
editParantaka II, heart broken by the personal tragedy died inKanchipuramat his golden palace (c. 980 CE). He was thereafter known as "Pon maligai thunjina thevar"–" the king who died in the golden palace ".[18]Parantaka II continued the chola legacy of absolutely professional and democratic management. This is seen from many inscriptions of his and his illustrious sonAditya II,which describe reforms carried out professionally at universities, councils, military and navy. Parantaka was well supported by his management councillors. Thus we know from an inscription of his how a certainAniruddha Brahmarayanwho was a follower of jaiminiya sutra of samaveda (jaiminiya sutrattu aniruddha bhramarayar) and who was a "servitor at the feet of lord of river girt arankam (srirangam), i.e lord vishnu", who belonged to royal council being felicitated for selfless service.
One of his queens, Vanavanmahadevi, a princess from the clan ofMalaiyaman,committed suicide by jumping into the fire, in spite for serval oppositions by the noble men at the king's death and her image was perhaps installed at theThanjavurTemple by her daughter Kundavai.[19]Another queen, aCheraprincess survived him until 1001 CE.
During Parantaka II's reign, literatureTamilreceived encouragement. TheBuddhistwork onTamilgrammar,Virasoliyameulogises him as a patron of letters and ofBuddhism.The eulogy furnishes evidence for the friendly relationship between the Chola monarchs and the Buddhists.
Inscriptions
editThe following is an inscription of Parantaka II from theSivayoginathar TempleinThiruvisanallur,
(Verse 2)..The King named Siruvela who was the light of the Irungola race and foremost(member) in the family of the daughter of the (king) Pirantaka gave with delight a lamp to Hara(Siva) whose abode was at Srivisalura.(Verse 3) May the Maheswaras protect the lamp presented with delight in the prosperous fifth year of(reign of) the best of kings, the illustrious Sundara Chola, by him who bore the name Siruvela, to Isa(Siva) who was pleased to dwell in the abode (temple) of Srivisalura(situated) in the virtuous village named Nimbagrhara on the northern bank of the (river) Kaveri.[20]
The termforemost in the family of the king Pirantaka's daughterindicates the alliance between theCholaandIrukkuvelfamilies and the chief Siriyavela might have been the King's son-in-law or his daughter's father-in-law.[21][13]
Here is another inscription of Parantaka II from theVedapureeswarar templeinTiruverkadu(north wall of the central shrine),
A record in the seventh year of the Perumal Sundara Choladeva, who drove the Pandya into the forest.Records gift of lands for offerings to the temple of Srikudittittai-Udaiyar in Vadagarai-vembarrur by the king's general (senapati) Pirantakan Siriyavelar alias Tirukkarrali Pichchan.[22]
In popular culture
edit- Sundara Chola, forms a main character inKalki Krishnamurthy’s 1955 historical fiction novelPonniyin Selvan.In his story, Kalki imagines Parantaka II to be a powerless ruler - handicapped by a debilitating illness. He is caught between opposing forces of his love for his children and his dependence on powerful courtiers.
- Indian actorPrakash Rajplays his role inPonniyin Selvan: I,Ponniyin Selvan: IIwhich was directed byMani Ratnamwhich is based onKalki's novel.
Notes
edit- ^N. Subrahmanian (1993).Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336.Ennes. p. 130.
- ^Early Chola temples:Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985
- ^Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16, page 35
- ^A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District, page 41
- ^N. Subrahmanian (1993).Social and Cultural History of Tamilnad: To A.D. 1336.Ennes. p. 130.
- ^"The Vaidumbas were an Andhra dynasty who ruled in the ninth century AD".19 September 2011.Retrieved9 October2020.
- ^International Association of Tamil Research, International Institute of Tamil Studies (1976).Journal of Tamil Studies, Issues 9-10.International Institute of Tamil Studies. p. 78.
- ^Xavier Pinto, E.G. Myall.Glimpses of History.Frank Brothers. p. 91.
- ^kamlesh kapur.Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India: History.Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 592.
- ^Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955).The Cholas (revised 2nd ed.).University of Madras. p. 153.
- ^N. Sethuraman (1980).Early Cholas: Mathematics Reconstructs the Chronology.Sethuraman. p. 68.
- ^Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman (1985).Rājarājeśvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art.Mudgala Trust. p. 14.
- ^abWijetunga Mudalige Karunaratna Wijetunga (2003).Sri Lanka and the Choḷas.Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha Publishers. pp. 60–61.
- ^K. R. Venkatarama Ayyar (1938).A Manual of the Pudukkóttai State, Volume 1.Printed at the Sri Brihadamba State Press. p. 604.
- ^Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta.No 27, The Udayarkudi Inscription of Rajakesarivarman.Epigraphia India Vol XXI. pp. 165–170.
- ^Kudavoiyal, Balasubramanian (11 November 2018)."Udayarkudi Inscription – An In-depth Assessment ( Translated article)".Retrieved15 May2023.
The narrative of the above inscription upon examination makes it very clear that that only other three brothers namely Soman ( his alias is not decipherable in the inscription), Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brahmadirajan and Paramesvaran alias Irumudi Chola Brahmadirajan were the culprits/traitors who assassinated Aditya Karikala and since the other referred individuals are dealt with as 'others' ('evargal') it becomes obvious that these 'others' were only relatives of the 3 brothers and were not complicit otherwise to the said murder.
- ^Srinivasan, R.V.A Note on the Accession of Raja Raja.Vivekananda College Magazine. p. 13.
- ^S. R. Balasubrahmanyam.Early Chola Temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985.Orient Longman, 1971 - Architecture, Chola - 351 pages. p. 106.
- ^B. S. Chandrababu, L. Thilagavathi (2009).Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation.Bharathi Puthakalayam. pp. 135–136.
- ^Rao Sahib H. Krishna Sastri (1987).South Indian Inscriptions, Volume III, Miscellaneous inscriptions from the Tamil Country.The Director General, Archaeological Survey On India, Janpath, New Delhi. pp. 257–258.
- ^S. R. Balasubrahmanyam (1966).Volume 1 of Early Chola Art.Asia publ. house. p. 171.
- ^V. Rangacharya (1985).A Topographical List of Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency, Volume II, with Notes and References.Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. p. 1246.
References
edit- Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935).The CōĻas,University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
- Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955).A History of South India,OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
- Early Chola temples: Parantaka I to Rajaraja I, A.D. 907-985 By S. R. Balasubrahmanyam
- Journal of Indian museums, Volumes 14-16 By Museums Association of India
- A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Nilgiris District, Pudukkottai District, Ramanathapuram District, Salem District By T. V. Mahalingam