Peaceful coexistence

Peaceful coexistence(Russian:мирное сосуществование,romanized:mirnoye sosushchestvovaniye) was a theory, developed and applied by theSoviet Unionat various points during theCold Warin the context of primarilyMarxist–Leninistforeign policy and adopted bySoviet-alliedsocialist states,according to which theSocialist Bloccould peacefully coexist with thecapitalistbloc (i.e., U.S.-allied states). This was in contrast to theantagonistic contradictionprinciple thatsocialismandcapitalismcould never coexist in peace. TheSoviet Unionapplied it to relations between the western world, particularlyNATOcountries, and nations of theWarsaw Pact.

Debates over differing interpretations of peaceful coexistence were one aspect of theSino-Soviet splitin the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1970s, thePeople's Republic of Chinaunder the leadership of its founder,Mao Zedong,argued that a belligerent attitude should be maintained towards capitalist countries, and so initially rejected the peaceful coexistence theory as essentiallyMarxist revisionism.Their decision in 1972 to establish a trade relationship with the United States also saw China cautiously adopting a version of the theory to relations between itself and non-socialist countries. From that point through the early 1980s and the adoption ofSocialism with Chinese characteristics,China increasingly extended its own peaceful coexistence concept to include all nations. Albanian rulerEnver Hoxha(at one time, China's only true ally) also denounced this and turned against China as a result of the latter's growing ties to the West, as exemplified byRichard Nixon's visit to China in 1972;today,Hoxhaistparties continue to denounce the concept of peaceful coexistence.

Peaceful coexistence, in extending itself to all countries and social movements tied to theUSSR's interpretation of communism, quickly becamemodus operandifor many individualcommunist partiesas well, encouraging quite a few, especially those in thedeveloped world,to give up their long-term goal of amassing support for an armed, insurrectionistcommunist revolutionin exchange for more active participation inelectoral politics.

Soviet policy

Khrushchevsolidified the concept in Soviet foreign policy in 1956 at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The policy arose as an attempt to reduce hostility between the two superpowers, particularly in light of the possibility ofnuclear war.The Soviet theory of peaceful coexistence asserted that theUnited StatesandUSSR,and their respective political ideologies, could coexist rather than fighting one another, and Khrushchev tried to demonstrate his commitment to peaceful coexistence by attending international peace conferences, such as theGeneva Summit,and by traveling internationally, such as his 13-day trip to tour the United States in 1959.TheWorld Peace Councilfounded in 1949 and largely funded by theSoviet Unionattempted to organize apeace movementin favor of the concept internationally.

Peaceful coexistence was meant to assuage Western, capitalist concerns that the socialist Soviet Union was driven by the concept ofworld revolutionadvocated by its founders,Vladimir Leninand theBolsheviks.Lenin and the Bolsheviks advocated world revolution through workers' "internal revolutions" within their own nations, but they had never advocated its spread by international warfare, such as invasion byRed Armytroops from a neighboring socialist nation into a capitalist one.

Indeed, short of such "internal revolutions" by workers themselves, Lenin had talked about "peaceful cohabitation" with capitalist countries. Khrushchev used this aspect of Lenin's politics to argue that while socialism would eventually triumph overcapitalism,this would be done not by force but by example. Implicitly, this proclamation meant the end of the USSR's advocacy of the spread of communist revolution through insurrectionist violence, which some communists around the world saw as a betrayal of the principles of revolutionary communism itself.

In addition to being a reaction to the realization that a nuclear war between the two superpowers would ensure the destruction of not only thesocialistsystem but the entirety of humanity, it also reflected the USSR's strategic military disposition - the move away from large, and possibly politically offensive, military ventures towards a force centered onproxy warsand a strategic nuclear missile force. Although disquiet over this shift helped bring Khrushchev down, his successors did not return to theantagonistic contradictiontheories of an inevitable conflict between thecapitalistand socialist systems. Initially, this wasChina's main gripe with the theory, and the reason the latter from then on classified the Soviet Union as a "betrayer of the Revolution."

Cuban policy

As Marxists we have maintained that peaceful coexistence among nations does not encompass coexistence between the exploiters and the exploited, between the oppressors and the oppressed.

— Che Guevara,December 11, 1964 speech to theUnited Nations

One of the most outspoken critics of peaceful coexistence during the early 1960s was ArgentineMarxistrevolutionaryChe Guevara.As a leader in the Cuban government during theOctober Missile Crisis,Guevara believed that a repeat invasion by the United States (after theBay of Pigs) would be justifiable grounds for a nuclear war. In Guevara's view, the capitalist bloc was composed of "hyenas and jackals" that "fed on unarmed peoples".

Chinese policy

PremierZhou Enlaiof thePeople's Republic of Chinaproposed theFive Principles of Peaceful Coexistencein 1954 during negotiations withIndiaoverTibetand these were written into theAgreement Between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of India on Trade and Intercourse Between the Tibet Region of China and Indiasigned in 1954 by Zhou andPrime Minister of IndiaJawaharlal Nehru.The principles were reiterated by Zhou at theBandung ConferenceofAsianandAfricancountries where they were incorporated into the conference declarations. One major consequence of this policy was that the PRC would not support Communist insurgencies in Southeast Asia, particularly inThailandandMalaysia,and would distance itself fromoverseas Chinesein those nations.

Mao Zedong pursued close relations with 'capitalist' countries likePakistan,Ethiopia,Tanzania,IranandZambia.China did not endorse or support theCommunist rebellion in the Philippinesand hosted Philippine presidentFerdinand Marcosin 1975.In 1972, the U.S. president Richard Nixon visited China. China extended credit toAugusto Pinochet's Chile.The pro-Western dictator ofZaire,Mobutu Sese SekovisitedBeijingin 1973, and signed economic and technical cooperation agreements.

To justify China's close relations with U.S. allies, theThree Worlds Theorywas adopted. Both U.S. and U.S.S.R were seen as imperialist powers.

With Mao's death the Chinese softened their line, though would never endorse the views of their rivals. During the late 1970s and 1980s, the concept of peaceful coexistence was expanded as a framework for all sovereign nations. In 1982 the Five Principles were written into theConstitutionof the People's Republic of China which claims to be bound by them in its international relations.

The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence as promoted by China are:

• mutual respect forsovereigntyand territorial integrity
• mutual non-aggression
• non-interference in each other's internal affairs
• equality and mutual benefit
• peaceful co-existence

There are three notable consequences of the Chinese concept of peaceful coexistence. First of all, in contrast with the Soviet concepts of the mid-1970s, the Chinese concepts include the encouragement of globalfree trade.Second, the Chinese concept of peaceful coexistence places a large emphasis on national sovereignty and territorial integrity, and thus moves by the United States to promote its interests are seen in this framework as hostile. Finally, as the PRC does not considerTaiwanto be sovereign, the concept of peaceful coexistence does not extend to Taiwan, and efforts by other nations, particularly the United States, to involve itself in PRC-Taiwan relations are seen as hostile actions in this framework.

Use in modern diplomacy

More recently, the phrase has gained currency beyond its usage in communist phraseology and has been adopted by the broader diplomatic world. For instance, in his 2004 Christmas address,Pope John Paul IIcalled for "peaceful coexistence" in theMiddle East.

See also

• Détente
• Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
• International relations theory
• Mutual assured destruction
• Neutral and Non-Aligned European States
• Peaceful evolution
• Socialism in one country

Further reading

• Ankerl, Guy (2000).Global communication without universal civilization.INU societal research. Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press.ISBN978-2-88155-004-1.
• Benvenuti, Andrea. "Constructing Peaceful Coexistence: Nehru’s Approach to Regional Security and India’s Rapprochement with Communist China in the Mid-1950s."Diplomacy & Statecraft31.1 (2020): 91–117.
• Erickson, Richard J. (January–February 1973)."Development of the Strategy of Peaceful Coexisting During the Khrushchev Era".Air University Review.Archived fromthe originalon 13 January 2017.Retrieved6 December2010.
• Kennan, George F. "Peaceful Coexistence: A Western View."Foreign Affairs38.2 (1960): 171–190.online
• Kulski, Wladyslaw W. (1959).Peaceful Coexistence: An Analysis of Soviet Foreign Policy.Chicago: Henry Regnery Company.
• Lerner, Warren. "The Historical Origins of the Soviet Doctrine of Peaceful Coexistence."Law & Contemporary Problems29 (1964): 865+online.
• Lewkowicz, Nicolas. ''The Role of Ideology in the Origins of the Cold War(Scholar's Press, 2018).
• Lipson, Leon. "Peaceful coexistence."Law and Contemporary Problems29.4 (1964): 871–881.online
• Magnúsdóttir, Rósa. "'Be Careful in America, Premier Khrushchev!'. Soviet perceptions of peaceful coexistence with the United States in 1959."Cahiers du monde russe. Russie-Empire russe-Union soviétique et États indépendants47.47/1-2 (2006): 109–130.Online in English
• Marantz, Paul. "Prelude to détente: doctrinal change under Khrushchev."International Studies Quarterly19.4 (1975): 501–528.
• Ramundo, Bernard.Peaceful Coexistence: International Law in the Building of Communism(Johns Hopkins UP, 1967).
• Sakharov, Andrei (1968).Progress, Coëxistence, and Intellectual Freedom.Trans. by [staff of]The New York Times;with introd., afterword, and notes by Harrison E. Salisbury. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 158 p.
• Smith, Mark B. "Peaceful coexistence at all costs: Cold War exchanges between Britain and the Soviet Union in 1956."Cold War History12.3 (2012): 537–558.
• Windt Jr, Theodore Otto. "The rhetoric of peaceful coexistence: Khrushchev in America, 1959."Quarterly Journal of Speech57.1 (1971): 11–22.
• Zhang, Shu Guang. "Constructing ‘Peaceful Coexistence’: China's Diplomacy toward the Geneva and Bandung Conferences, 1954–55."Cold War History7.4 (2007): 509-528.
• Zhi, Liang. "Heading Toward Peaceful Coexistence: The Effects of the Improvement in Sino-Burmese Relations from 1953 to 1955."Asian Perspective42.4 (2018): 527–549.online

Primary sources

• Khrushchev, Nikita S. "On peaceful coexistence."Foreign Affairs.38 (1959): 1.online