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Persians

For the breed of cat, seePersian cat.For other uses, seePersian (disambiguation).

ThePersiansorIranian Persians(/ˈpɜːrʒənz/PUR-zhənzor/ˈpɜːrʃənz/PUR-shənz) are anIranian ethnic groupwho comprise over half of the population ofIran.[4]They share acommon cultural systemand are native speakers of thePersian language[6][7][8]as well as ofthe languages that are closely related to Persian.[9]

Persians
پارسیها/فارسی/ایرانی
Total population
c. 60+ million[1]
Regions with significant populations
Iran51–65%[2][3][4](also includingGilaksandMazanderanis)[2]of the total population
Languages
Persian,otherIranian languages
Religion
Majority:
Shia Islam
Minority:
Zoroastrianism,Christianity,Judaism,Baháʼí Faith,Sunni Islam,andvarious others[5]
Related ethnic groups
OtherIranian peoples
This article containsPersian text.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols.

The ancient Persians were originally anancient Iranian peoplewho had migrated to the region ofPersis(corresponding to the modern-day Iranian province ofFars) by the 9th century BCE.[10][11]Together with their compatriot allies, they established and ruledsome of the world's most powerful empires[12][11]that are well-recognized for their massive cultural, political, and social influence, which covered much of the territory and population of theancient world.[13][14][15]Throughout history, the Persian people have contributed greatly toartandscience.[16][17][18]Persian literatureis one of the world's most prominent literary traditions.[19]

In contemporary terminology, people fromAfghanistan,Tajikistan,andUzbekistanwho natively speak the Persian language are known asTajiks,with the former two countries having their own dialects of Persian known asDariandTajiki,respectively; whereas those in theCaucasus(primarily in the present-dayRepublic of AzerbaijanandDagestan,Russia), albeit heavily assimilated, are known asTats.[20][21]Historically, however, the termsTajikandTatwere used synonymously and interchangeably withPersian.[20]Many influential Persian figures hailed from outside of Iran's present-day borders—to the northeast in Afghanistan andCentral Asia,and to a lesser extent within the Caucasus proper to the northwest.[22][23]In historical contexts, especially inEnglish,"Persian" may be defined more loosely (often as a national identity) to cover all subjects of the ancient Persian polities, regardless of their ethnic background.

Ethnonym

Etymology

See also:Perseus

The termPersian,meaning "from Persia", derives fromLatinPersia,itself deriving fromGreekPersís(Περσίς),[24]a Hellenized form ofOld PersianPārsa(𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿), which evolves intoFārs(فارس) in modern Persian.[25]In theBible,particularly in the books ofDaniel,Esther,Ezra,andNehemya,it is given asPārās(פָּרָס).

A Greek folk etymology connected the name toPerseus,a legendary character inGreek mythology.Herodotusrecounts this story,[26]devising a foreign son,Perses,from whom the Persians took the name. Apparently, the Persians themselves knew the story,[27]asXerxes Itried to use it to suborn theArgivesduring his invasion of Greece, but ultimately failed to do so.

History of usage

AlthoughPersis(Persia proper) was only one of the provinces of ancient Iran,[28]varieties of this term (e.g.,Persia) were adopted through Greek sources and used as an exonym for all of thePersian Empirefor many years.[29]Thus, especially in theWestern world,the namesPersiaandPersiancame to refer to all of Iran and its subjects.[29][10]

Some medieval and early modern Islamic sources also used cognates of the termPersianto refer to various Iranian peoples and languages, including the speakers ofKhwarazmian,[30]Mazanderani,[31]andOld Azeri.[32]10th-century Iraqi historianAl-Masudirefers toPahlavi,Dari,andAzarias dialects of the Persian language.[33]In 1333, medieval Moroccan traveler and scholarIbn Battutareferred to theAfghansofKabulas a specific sub-tribe of the Persians.[34]Lady Mary (Leonora Woulfe) Sheil, in her observation of Iran during the Qajar era, states that the Kurds and the Leks would consider themselves as belonging to the race of the "old Persians".[35]

On 21 March 1935, the then-king of IranReza Shahof thePahlavi dynastyissued a decree asking the international community to use the termIran,the native name of the country, in formal correspondence. However, the termPersianis still historically used to designate the predominant population of the Iranian peoples living in theIranian cultural continent.[36][37]

History

See also:Ancient Iranian peoplesandProto-Indo-Europeans

Persia is first attested inAssyriansources from the third millennium BC in theOld AssyrianformParahše,designating a region belonging to theSumerians.The name of this region was adopted by a nomadicancient Iranian peoplewho migrated to the region in the west and southwest ofLake Urmia,eventually becoming known as "the Persians".[10][38]The ninth-century BCNeo-Assyrianinscription of theBlack Obelisk of Shalmaneser III,found atNimrud,gives it in the Late Assyrian formsParsuaandParsumašas a region and a people located in theZagros Mountains,the latter likely having migrated southward and transferred the name of the region with them to what would becomePersis(Persia proper, i.e., modern-dayFars), and that is considered to be the earliest attestation to the ancient Persian people.[39][40][41][42][43]

Ancient Persian attire worn by soldiers and a nobleman.The History of Costumeby Braun & Scheider (1861–1880).

The ancient Persians played a major role in the downfall of theNeo-Assyrian Empire.[44]TheMedes,another group of ancient Iranian people, unified the region under an empire centered inMedia,which would become the region's leading cultural and political power of the time by 612 BC.[45]Meanwhile, under thedynasty of the Achaemenids,the Persians formed a vassal state to the central Median power. In 552 BC, the Achaemenid Persiansrevoltedagainst the Median monarchy, leading to the victory ofCyrus the Greatover the throne in 550 BC. The Persians spread their influence to the rest of what is considered to be theIranian Plateau,and assimilated with the non-Iranianindigenousgroups of the region, including theElamitesand theMannaeans.[46]

Map of theAchaemenid Empireat its greatest extent.

At its greatest extent, theAchaemenid Empirestretched from parts ofEastern Europein the west to theIndus Valleyin the east, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen.[11]The Achaemenids developed the infrastructure to support their growing influence, including the establishment of the cities ofPasargadaeandPersepolis.[47]The empire extended as far as the limits of the Greek city states in modern-day mainlandGreece,where the Persians and Athenians influenced each other in what is essentially a reciprocal cultural exchange.[48]Its legacy and impact on the kingdom ofMacedonwas also notably huge,[14]even for centuries after the withdrawal of the Persians from Europe following theGreco-Persian Wars.[14]

Persian warriors led byDarius IIIin the antiqueAlexander Mosaic

During the Achaemenid era, Persian colonists settled inAsia Minor.[49]InLydia(the most important Achaemenid satrapy), nearSardis,there was theHyrcanian plain,which, according toStrabo,got its name from the Persian settlers that were moved fromHyrcania.[50]Similarly near Sardis, there was the plain of Cyrus, which further signified the presence of numerous Persian settlements in the area.[51]In all these centuries, Lydia andPontuswere reportedly the chief centers for the worship of the Persian gods in Asia Minor.[51]According toPausanias,as late as the second century AD, one could witness rituals which resembled the Persian fire ceremony at the towns of Hyrocaesareia andHypaepa.[51]Mithridates III of Cius,a Persian nobleman and part of the Persian ruling elite of the town ofCius,founded theKingdom of Pontusin his later life, in northern Asia Minor.[52][53]At the peak of its power, under the infamousMithridates VI the Great,the Kingdom of Pontus also controlledColchis,Cappadocia,Bithynia,theGreekcolonies of theTauric Chersonesos,and for a brief time theRoman province of Asia.After a long struggle with Rome in theMithridatic Wars,Pontus was defeated; part of it was incorporated into theRoman Republicas the province ofBithynia and Pontus,and the eastern half survived as a client kingdom.

Following theMacedonian conquests,the Persian colonists in Cappadocia and the rest of Asia Minor were cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, but they continued to practice theIranian faithof their forefathers.[54]Strabo, who observed them in theCappadocian Kingdomin the first century BC, records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed many "holy places of the Persian Gods", as well as fire temples.[54]Strabo, who wrote during the time ofAugustus(r. 27 BC – AD 14), almost three hundred years after the fall of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, records only traces of Persians in western Asia Minor; however, he considered Cappadocia "almost a living part of Persia".[55]

The Iranian dominance collapsed in 330 BC following the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire byAlexander the Great,but reemerged shortly after through the establishment of theParthian Empirein 247 BC, which was founded by a group of ancient Iranian people rising fromParthia.Until the Parthian era, Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value. However, it did not yet have a political import.[56]TheParthian language,which was used as an official language of the Parthian Empire, left influences on Persian,[57][58][59]as well as on the neighboringArmenian language.

A bas-relief atNaqsh-e Rustamdepicting the victory of Sasanian rulerShapur Iover Roman rulerValerianandPhilip the Arab.

The Parthian monarchy was succeeded by the Persiandynasty of the Sasaniansin 224 AD. By the time of theSasanian Empire,a national culture that was fully aware of being Iranian took shape, partially motivated by restoration and revival of the wisdom of "the old sages" (dānāgān pēšēnīgān).[56]Other aspects of this national culture included the glorification of a great heroic past and an archaizing spirit.[56]Throughout the period, Iranian identity reached its height in every aspect.[56]Middle Persian,which is the immediate ancestor of Modern Persian and a variety of other Iranian dialects,[57][60][61][62]became the official language of the empire[63]and was greatly diffused among Iranians.[56]

The Parthians and the Sasanians would also extensively interact with theRomansculturally. TheRoman–Persian warsand theByzantine–Sasanian warswould shape the landscape ofWestern Asia,Europe,theCaucasus,North Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin for centuries. For a period of over 400 years, the Sasanians and the neighboring Byzantines were recognized as the two leading powers in the world.[64][65][66]Cappadocia inLate Antiquity,now well into the Roman era, still retained a significant Iranian character; Stephen Mitchell notes in theOxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity:"Many inhabitants of Cappadocia were of Persian descent and Iranian fire worship is attested as late as 465".[67]

Following theArab conquest of the Sasanian Empirein the medieval times, the Arabcaliphatesestablished their rule over the region for the next several centuries, during which the long process of theIslamization of Irantook place. Confronting the cultural and linguistic dominance of the Persians, beginning by theUmayyad Caliphate,the Arab conquerors began to establish Arabic as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire, sometimes by force, further confirming the new political reality over the region.[68]The Arabic termʿAjam,denoting "people unable to speak properly", was adopted as a designation for non-Arabs (or non-Arabic speakers), especially the Persians.[69]Although the term had developed a derogatory meaning and implied cultural and ethnic inferiority, it was gradually accepted as a synonym for "Persian"[68][70][71]and still remains today as a designation for the Persian-speaking communities native to the modernArab statesof the Middle East.[72]A series of Muslim Iranian kingdoms were later established on the fringes of the decliningAbbasid Caliphate,including that of the ninth-centurySamanids,under the reign of whom thePersian languagewas used officially for the first time after two centuries of no attestation of the language,[73]now having received the Arabic script and a large Arabic vocabulary.[74]Persian language and culture continued to prevail after the invasions and conquests by the Mongols and the Turks (including theIlkhanate,Ghaznavids,Seljuks,Khwarazmians,andTimurids), who were themselves significantlyPersianized,further developing inAsia Minor,Central Asia,andSouth Asia,where Persian culture flourished by the expansion of thePersianate societies,particularly those ofTurco-PersianandIndo-Persianblends.

One of the first actions performed byShāhIsmā'īl Iof theSafavid dynastywas the proclamation of theTwelverdenomination ofShīʿa Islamas theofficial religionof his newly foundedPersian Empire.[75]

After over eight centuries of foreign rule within the region, the Iranian hegemony was reestablished by the emergence of theSafavid Empirein the 16th century.[76]Under the Safavid Empire, focus on Persian language and identity was further revived, and the political evolution of the empire once again maintained Persian as the main language of the country.[77]During the times of theSafavidsand subsequent modern Iranian dynasties such as theQajars,architectural and iconographic elements from the time of the Sasanian Persian Empire were reincorporated, linking the modern country with its ancient past.[78]Contemporary embracement of the legacy of Iran's ancient empires, with an emphasis on the Achaemenid Persian Empire, developed particularly under the reign of thePahlavi dynasty,providing the motive of a modern nationalistic pride.[79]Iran's modern architecture was then inspired by that of the country's classical eras, particularly with the adoption of details from the ancient monuments in the Achaemenid capitals Persepolis and Pasargadae and the Sasanian capitalCtesiphon.[80]Fars, corresponding to the ancient province of Persia, with its modern capitalShiraz,became a center of interest, particularly during the annual internationalShiraz Arts Festivaland the2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire.[81]The Pahlavi rulers modernized Iran, and ruled it until the1979 Revolution.

Anthropology

In modern Iran, the Persians make up the majority of the population.[4]They are native speakers of the modern dialects ofPersian,[82]which serves as the country's official language.[83]

Persian language

Main article:Persian language
See also:Iranian languagesandWestern Iranian languages
Old Persianinscribed incuneiformon theBehistun Inscription.

The Persian language belongs to thewestern groupof theIranianbranch of theIndo-European language family.Modern Persian is classified as a continuation ofMiddle Persian,the official religious and literary language of theSasanian Empire,itself a continuation ofOld Persian,which was used by the time of theAchaemenid Empire.[61][57][60]Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages attested in original text.[60]Samples of Old Persian have been discovered in present-day Iran,Armenia,Egypt,Iraq,Romania(Gherla),[84][85]andTurkey.[86]The oldest attested text written in Old Persian is from theBehistun Inscription,[87]a multilingual inscription from the time of Achaemenid rulerDarius the Greatcarved on a cliff in western Iran.

There are several ethnic groups and communities that are either ethnically or linguistically related to the Persian people, living predominantly in Iran, and also within Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, the Caucasus, Turkey, Iraq, and theArab states of the Persian Gulf.[88]

TheTajiksare a people native toTajikistan,Afghanistan,andUzbekistanwho speak Persian in a variety of dialects.[20]The Tajiks of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan are native speakers ofTajik,which is the official language of Tajikistan, and those in Afghanistan speakDari,one of the two official languages of Afghanistan.

TheTat people,an Iranian people native to the Caucasus (primarily living in theRepublic of Azerbaijanand theRussianrepublic ofDagestan), speak a language (Tat language) that is closely related to Persian.[89]The origin of the Tat people is traced to an Iranian-speaking population that was resettled in the Caucasus by the time of the Sasanian Empire.[90][91][92][93][94][95][96]

TheLurs,an ethnic Iranian people native to western Iran, are often associated with the Persians and theKurds.[97]They speak various dialects of theLuri language,which is considered to be a descendant ofMiddle Persian.[98][99][62]

TheHazaras,making up the third largest ethnic group in Afghanistan,[100][101][102]speak a variety of Persian by the name ofHazaragi,[103]which is more precisely a part of the Dari dialect continuum.[104][105]TheAimaqs,a semi-nomadic people native to Afghanistan,[106]speak a variety of Persian by the name ofAimaqi,which also belongs to the Dari dialect continuum.[82][107]

Persian-speaking communities native to modern Arab countries are generally designated asAjam,[72]including theAjam of Bahrain,theAjam of Iraq,and theAjam of Kuwait.

TheParsisare a Zoroastrian community of Persian descent who migrated toSouth Asia,to escape religious persecution after the fall of theSassanian Empire.[108]They have had a significant role in the development ofIndia,PakistanandSri Lanka,and also played a role in the development ofIranian nationalismduring the late Qajar years and Pahlavi dynasty.[109]They are primarily located in the western regions of India principally the states ofGujaratandMaharashtra,with smaller communities in other parts of India and in South and Southeast Asia.[110]They speak a dialect version ofGujarati,and no longer speak in Persian.[111]They do however continue to useAvestanas their liturgical language.[111]The Parsis have adapted many practices and tendencies of the Indian groups that surrounded them, such as Indian dress norms, and the observance of many Indian festivals and ceremonies.[111]

Culture

Main articles:Persian cultureandPersian art

FromPersisand throughout the Median, Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian empires of ancient Iran to the neighboringGreek city statesand thekingdom of Macedon,[112][14]and later throughout the medievalIslamic world,[113][17]all the way to modernIranand others parts ofEurasia,Persian culture has been extended, celebrated, and incorporated.[114][18][113][115]This is due mainly to its geopolitical conditions, and its intricate relationship with the ever-changing political arena once as dominant as the Achaemenid Empire.

Theartistic heritage of the Persiansis eclectic and has included contributions from both the east and the west. Due to the central location of Iran, Persian art has served as a fusion point between eastern and western traditions. Persians have contributed to various forms of art, includingcalligraphy,carpet weaving,glasswork,lacquerware,marquetry(khatam),metalwork,miniature illustration,mosaic,pottery,andtextile design.[16]

Literature

Main article:Persian literature
See also:Persian literature in Western culture

The Persian language is known to have one of the world's oldest and most influential literatures.[19]Old Persian written works are attested on several inscriptions from between the 6th and the 4th centuries BC, andMiddle Persian literatureis attested oninscriptionsfrom the Parthian and Sasanian eras and inZoroastrianandManichaeanscriptures from between the 3rd to the 10th century AD.New Persian literatureflourished after theArab conquest of Iranwith its earliest records from the 9th century,[116]and was developed as a court tradition in many eastern courts.[19]TheShahnamehofFerdowsi,the works ofRumi,theRubaiyatofOmar Khayyam,thePanj GanjofNizami Ganjavi,theDivānofHafez,The Conference of the BirdsbyAttar of Nishapur,and the miscellanea ofGulistanandBustanbySaadi Shiraziare among the famous works of medieval Persian literature. A thriving contemporary Persian literature has also been formed by the works of writers such asAhmad Shamlou,Forough Farrokhzad,Mehdi Akhavan-Sales,Parvin E'tesami,Sadegh Hedayat,andSimin Daneshvar,among others.

Not all Persian literature is written in Persian, as works written by Persians in other languages—such as Arabic and Greek—might also be included. At the same time, not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians, as Turkic, Caucasian, and Indic authors have also used Persian literature in the environment ofPersianate cultures.

Architecture

Further information:Achaemenid architectureandSasanian architecture
See also:Iranian architecture

The most notable examples of ancient Persian architecture are the works of the Achaemenids hailing fromPersis.Achaemenid architecture,dating from the expansion of the empire around 550 BC, flourished in a period of artistic growth that left a legacy ranging fromCyrus the Great's solemn tombatPasargadaeto the structures atPersepolisandNaqsh-e Rostam.[117]TheBam Citadel,a massive structure at 1,940,000 square feet (180,000 m2) constructed on theSilk RoadinBam,is from around the 5th century BC.[118]The quintessential feature of Achaemenid architecture was its eclectic nature, with elements from Median architecture, Assyrian architecture, and Asiatic Greek architecture all incorporated.[119]

Thearchitectural heritage of the Sasanian Empireincludes, among others, castle fortifications such as theFortifications of Derbent(located inNorth Caucasus,now part ofRussia), theRudkhan Castleand theShapur-Khwast Castle,palaces such as thePalace of Ardashirand theSarvestan Palace,bridges such as theShahrestan Bridgeand theShapuri Bridge,theArchway of Ctesiphon,and the reliefs atTaq-e Bostan.

Architectural elements from the time of Iran's ancient Persian empires have been adopted and incorporated in later period.[78]They were used especially during the modernization of Iran under the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty to contribute to the characterization of the modern country with its ancient history.[79][80]

Gardens

Main article:Persian gardens
See also:Paradise gardenandBāgh

Xenophon,in hisOeconomicus,[120]states:

"The Great King [Cyrus II]...in all the districts he resides in and visits, takes care that there areparádeisos( "paradise" ) as they [Persians] call them, full of the good and beautiful things that the soil produce. "

ThePersian garden,the earliest examples of which were found throughout the Achaemenid Empire, has an integral position in Persian architecture.[121]Gardens assumed an important place for the Achaemenid monarchs,[120]and utilized the advanced Achaemenid knowledge of water technologies,[122]includingaqueducts,earliest recorded gravity-fed water rills, and basins arranged in a geometric system. The enclosure of this symmetrically arranged planting and irrigation by an infrastructure such as a palace created the impression of "paradise".[123]The wordparadiseitself originates fromAvestanpairidaēza(Old Persianparidaida;New Persianpardis,ferdows), which literally translates to "walled-around". Characterized by its quadripartite (čārbāq) design, the Persian garden was evolved and developed into various forms throughout history,[120]and was also adopted in various other cultures in Eurasia. It was inscribed onUNESCO'sWorld Heritage Listin June 2011.

Carpets

Main article:Persian carpet
A Persian carpet kept at theLouvre.

Carpet weaving is an essential part of the Persian culture,[124]and Persian rugs are said to be one of the most detailed hand-made works of art.

Achaemenid rug and carpet artistry is well recognized.Xenophondescribes the carpet production in the city of Sardis, stating that the locals take pride in their carpet production. A special mention of Persian carpets is also made byAthenaeus of Naucratisin hisDeipnosophistae,as he describes a "delightfully embroidered" Persian carpet with "preposterous shapes ofgriffins".[125]

ThePazyrykcarpet, aScythianpile-carpet dating back to the 4th century BC that is regarded as the world's oldest existing carpet, depicts elements of Assyrian and Achaemenid designs, including stylistic references to the stone slab designs found in Persian royal buildings.[125]

Music

Main article:Persian traditional music
Dancers and musical instrument players depicted on aSasaniansilver bowl from the 5th-7th century AD.

According to the accounts reported by Xenophon, a great number of singers were present at the Achaemenid court. However, little information is available from the music of that era. The music scene of the Sasanian Empire has a more available and detailed documentation than the earlier periods, and is especially more evident within the context ofZoroastrian musical rituals.[126]Overall,Sasanian musicwas influential and was adopted in the subsequent eras.[127]

Iranian music, as a whole, utilizes a variety of musical instruments that are unique to the region, and has remarkably evolved since the ancient and medieval times. In traditional Sasanian music, theoctavewas divided into seventeen tones. By the end of the 13th century, Iranian music also maintained a twelve-interval octave, which resembled the western counterparts.[128]

Observances

The IranianNew Year's Day,Nowruz,which translates to "new day", is celebrated by Persians and other peoples of Iran to mark the beginning of spring on thevernal equinoxon the first day ofFarvardin,the first month of theIranian calendar,which corresponds to around March 21 in the Gregorian calendar. An ancient tradition that has been preserved in Iran and several other countries that were under the influence of the ancient empires of Iran,[129][130]Nowruz has been registered onUNESCO'sIntangible Cultural Heritage Lists.[131]In Iran, the Nowruz celebrations (incl.Charshanbe SuriandSizdebedar) begin on the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year in the Iranian calendar and last on the 13th day of the new year.Islamic festivalsare also widely celebrated by Muslim Persians.

See also

References

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  17. ^abHovannisian, Richard G.; Sabagh, Georges (1998).The Persian Presence in the Islamic World.Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–83.ISBN9780521591850.
  18. ^abSpuler, Bertold; Marcinkowski, M. Ismail (2003).Persian Historiography & Geography.Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd.ISBN9789971774882.
  19. ^abcArberry, Arthur John (1953).The Legacy of Persia.Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 200.ISBN0-19-821905-9.
  20. ^abc"TAJIK i. THE ETHNONYM: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION".Encyclopædia Iranica.20 July 2009.By mid-Safavid times the usagetājikfor 'Persian(s) of Iran' may be considered a literary affectation, an expression of the traditional rivalry between Men of the Sword and Men of the Pen. Pietro della Valle, writing from Isfahan in 1617, cites onlyPārsiandʿAjamias autonyms for the indigenous Persians, andTātandraʿiat'peasant(ry), subject(s)' as pejorative heteronyms used by the Qezelbāš (Qizilbāš) Torkmān elite. Perhaps by about 1400, reference to actual Tajiks was directed mostly at Persian-speakers in Afghanistan and Central Asia; (...)
  21. ^Ostler, Nicholas (2010).The Last Lingua Franca: English Until the Return of Babel.Penguin UK. pp. 1–352.ISBN978-0141922218.Tatwas known to have been used at different times to designate Crimean Goths, Greeks and sedentary peoples generally, but its primary reference came to be the Persians within the Turkic domains. (...)Tatis nowadays specialized to refer to special groups with Iranian languages in the west of the Caspian Sea.
  22. ^Nava'i, Ali Shir (tr. & ed. Robert Devereaux) (1996).Muhakamat al-lughatain.Leiden: Brill. p. 6.
  23. ^Starr, S. F. (2013).Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane.Princeton University Press.
  24. ^Περσίς.Liddell, Henry George;Scott, Robert;A Greek–English Lexiconat thePerseus Project.
  25. ^Harper, Douglas."Persia".Online Etymology Dictionary.
  26. ^Herodotus. "61".Histories.Vol. Book 7.
  27. ^Herodotus. "150".Histories.Vol. Book 7.
  28. ^Wilson, Arnold (2012). "The Middle Ages: Fars".The Persian Gulf (RLE Iran A).Routledge. p. 71.ISBN978-1136841057.
  29. ^abAxworthy, Michael (2017).Iran: What Everyone Needs to Know.Oxford University Press. p. 16.ISBN978-0190232962.
  30. ^For example,Al-Biruni,a native speaker of Khwarezmian, refers to "the people of Khwarizm" as "a branch of the Persian tree". See:Al-Biruni (2001).Al-Athar al-Baqiyya 'an al-Qurun al-Khaliyya[The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries]. Tehran: Miras-e Maktub. p. 56.و أما أهل خوارزم، و إن کانوا غصنا ً من دوحة الفُرس(...).(Translation: "The people of Khwarizm, they are a branch of the Persian tree." )
  31. ^The language used inMarzbān-nāmawas, in the words of the 13th-century historian Sa'ad ad-Din Warawini, "the language of Ṭabaristan and old, ancient Persian (fārsī-yi ḳadīm-i bāstān) ". See:Kramers, J.H. (2007)."Marzbān-Nāma".In Bearman, P.; Bianqui, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam.Brill.Retrieved18 November2007.
  32. ^10th-century Arab Muslim writer Ibn Hawqal, in hisṢūrat al-Arḍ,refers to "the language of the people of Azerbaijan and most of the people of Armenia" asal-fāresīya.Yarshater, E. (18 August 2011)."AZERBAIJAN vii. The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. III. pp. 238–245.
  33. ^Al Mas'udi (1894). De Goeje, M.J. (ed.).Kitab al-Tanbih wa-l-Ishraf(in Arabic). Brill. pp. 77–78.
  34. ^Ibn Battuta (2004).Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354.Routledge. p. 180.ISBN0-415-34473-5.We travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans. They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength, and are mostly highwaymen. Their principal mountain is calledKuh Sulayman.It is told that theprophet Sulayman [Solomon]ascended this mountain and having looked out over India, which was then covered with darkness, returned without entering it.
  35. ^Sheil, Lady Mary Leonora Woulfe (1856).Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia.J. Murray. p.394.
  36. ^"Persian".Merriam-Webster.13 August 2010.Retrieved10 June2012.
  37. ^Bausani, Alessandro (1971).The Persians, from the Earliest Days to the Twentieth Century.Elek.ISBN978-0-236-17760-8.
  38. ^Stearns, Peter N., ed. (2001). "The Medes and the Persians, c.1500-559".Encyclopedia of World History(6th ed.). The Houghton Mifflin Company.
  39. ^Schmitt, R. (21 July 2011)."ACHAEMENID DYNASTY".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. I. pp. 414–426.The Achaemenid clan possibly ruled over the Persian tribes already in the 9th century B.C., when they were still settled in northern Iran near Lake Urmia and tributary to the Assyrians. Of a king with the name Achaemenes there is no historical evidence; but it may have been under him that the Persians, under the pressure of Medes, Assyrians, and Urartians, migrated south into the Zagros region, where they founded, near the Elamite borders, the small state Parsumaš (with residence at present-day Masǰed-e Solaymān in the Baḵtīārī mountains, according to R. Ghirshman).
  40. ^Strootman, Rolf; Versluys, M. J. (2017).Persianism in Antiquity.Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 22.ISBN9783515113823..(footnote 53).
  41. ^Zarinkoob, Abdolhossein.Ruzgārān: Tārix-e Irān az Āğāz ta Soqut-e Saltanat-e Pahlaviروزگاران: تاریخ ایران از آغاز تا سقوط سلطنت پهلوی[Times: History of Iran from the Beginning to the Fall of the Pahlavi Monarchy] (in Persian). Sokhan. p. 37.
  42. ^Firuzmandi, Bahman (1996).Mād, Haxāmaneši, Aškāni, Sāsāniماد، هخامنشی، اشکانی، ساسانی[Median, Achaemenid, Arsacid, Sasanian]. Marlik. pp. 12–20, 155.
  43. ^Eduljee, K.E. (2012),"Zoroastrian Heritage",Heritage Institute,retrieved9 April2014
  44. ^Oppenheim, A. Leo (1964).Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization.University of Chicago Press. p. 49.
  45. ^Yarshater, Ehsan (29 March 2012)."IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. XIII. pp. 212–224.Of the numerous Iranian tribes who had settled in Iranian plateau, it was the Medes (...) who grew in power and achieved prominence. (...) Finally in 612 B.C.E. and in alliance with the Babylonians, he attacked the Assyrian capital, Nineveh. Their combined forces succeeded in bringing the Assyrian Empire down, thus eliminating a power that had ruled with ruthless efficiency over the Middle East for several centuries. (...) Achaemenes (q.v.;Haxāmaniš), eponymous ancestor of the Achaemenids according to Darius I, formed a kingdom in the Elamite territory of Anshan in Fārs as a vassal of the Median king (...).
  46. ^Xavier de Planhol (29 March 2012)."IRAN i. LANDS OF IRAN".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. XIII. pp. 204–212.
  47. ^Gates, Charles (2003).Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome.Psychology Press. p. 186.ISBN9780415121828.
  48. ^Margaret Christina Miller (2004).Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity.Cambridge University Press. p. 243.ISBN9780521607582.
  49. ^Raditsa 1983,p. 105.
  50. ^Raditsa 1983,pp. 102, 105.
  51. ^abcRaditsa 1983,p. 102.
  52. ^McGing 1986,p. 15.
  53. ^Van Dam 2002,p. 17.
  54. ^abBoyce 2001,p. 85.
  55. ^Raditsa 1983,p. 107.
  56. ^abcdeGnoli, Gherardo (30 March 2012)."IRANIAN IDENTITY ii. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. XIII. pp. 504–507.The inscriptions of Darius I (...) and Xerxes, in which the different provinces of the empire are listed, make it clear that, between the end of the 6th century and the middle of the 5th century B.C.E., the Persians were already aware of belonging to theariya"Iranian" nation (...). Darius and Xerxes boast of belonging to a stock which they call "Iranian": they proclaim themselves "Iranian" and "of Iranian stock,"ariyaandariya čiçarespectively, in inscriptions in which the Iranian countries come first in a list that is arranged in a new hierarchical and ethno-geographical order, compared for instance with the list of countries in Darius's inscription at Behistun (...). All this evidence shows that the namearya"Iranian" was a collective definition, denoting peoples (...) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of Ahura Mazdā. (...) Although, up until the end of the Parthian period, Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value, it did not yet have a political import. The idea of an "Iranian" empire or kingdom is a purely Sasanian one. (...) It was in the Sasanian period, then, that the pre-Islamic Iranian identity reached the height of its fulfilment in every aspect: political, religious, cultural, and linguistic (with the growing diffusion of Middle Persian). Its main ingredients were the appeal to a heroic past that was identified or confused with little-known Achaemenid origins (...), and the religious tradition, for which the Avesta was the chief source.
  57. ^abcAmmon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J.; Trudgill, Peter (2008).Sociolinguistics / Soziolinguistik(2 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 1912.ISBN978-3110199871.The Pahlavi language (also known as Middle Persian) was the official language of Iran during the Sassanid dynasty (from 3rd to 7th century A. D.). Pahlavi is the direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country. However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian.
  58. ^Windfuhr, G. (1989). "New West Iranian". In Schmitt, R. (ed.).Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum.Wiesbaden. pp. 251–62.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  59. ^Asatrian, Garnik S. (28 November 2011)."DIMLĪ".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. VI. pp. 405–411.
  60. ^abcSkjærvø, Prods Oktor (29 March 2012)."IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Documentation".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Vol. XIII. pp. 348–366.Only the official languages Old, Middle, and New Persian represent three stages of one and the same language, whereas close genetic relationships are difficult to establish between other Middle and Modern Iranian languages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese. (...) New Persian, the descendant of Middle Persian and official language of Iranian states for centuries, is today spoken widely in and outside Iran in a number of variants.
  61. ^abLazard, Gilbert (1975). "The Rise of the New Persian Language". In Frye, R. N. (ed.).The Cambridge History of Iran.Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 595–632.The language known as New Persian, which was usually called at this period by the name ofdarīorparsī-i darī,can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official, religious and literary language of Sasanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fārs (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialects prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran.
  62. ^abCoon, C.S. "Demography and Ethnography".Iran.Encyclopaedia of Islam.Vol. IV. E.J. Brill. pp. 10–8.The Lurs speak an aberrant form of Archaic Persian (...)
  63. ^Fortson, Benjamin W. (2009).Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction.John Wiley and Sons. p. 242.Middle Persian was the official language of the Sassanian dynasty (...)
  64. ^(Shapur Shahbazi 2005)
  65. ^Stillman, Norman A. (1979).The Jews of Arab Lands.Jewish Publication Society. p. 22.ISBN0827611552.
  66. ^International Congress of Byzantine Studies (30 September 2006).Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21-26 August 2006.Vol. 1–3. Ashgate Publishing. p. 29.ISBN075465740X.
  67. ^Mitchell 2018,p. 290.
  68. ^abFrye, Richard Nelson; Zarrinkoub, Abdolhosein (1975).Cambridge History of Iran.Vol. 4. London. p. 46.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  69. ^"ʿAJAM".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. I. 29 July 2011. pp. 700–701.
  70. ^Esposito, John L. (21 October 2004).The Oxford Dictionary of Islam.Oxford University Press. p. 12.ISBN9780199757268.People unable to speak properly. Refers to non-Arabs. Connotes cultural and ethnic inferiority. Adjectival form: ajami. Principally used to designate (and eventually synonymous with) Persians.
  71. ^Ngom, Fallou; Zito, Alex (2012). "Sub-Saharan African literature, ʿAjamī". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26630.
  72. ^abEnde, Werner; Steinbach, Udo (2010).Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society.Cornell University Press. p. 533.ISBN9780801464898.
  73. ^Paul, Ludwig (19 November 2013)."PERSIAN LANGUAGE i. Early New Persian".Encyclopædia Iranica.
  74. ^Perry, John R. (10 August 2011)."ARABIC LANGUAGE v. Arabic Elements in Persian".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. II. pp. 229–243.
  75. ^Masters, Bruce (2009)."Baghdad".In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.).Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.New York:Facts On File.p. 71.ISBN978-0-8160-6259-1.LCCN2008020716.Archivedfrom the original on 16 May 2016.Retrieved21 June2022.
  76. ^Savory, R.M. (1980).Iran under the Safavids.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 3.Why is there such confusion about the origins of this important dynasty, which reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign dynasties?
  77. ^Matthee, Rudi (28 July 2008)."SAFAVID DYNASTY".Encyclopædia Iranica.
  78. ^abHillenbrand, R. (11 August 2011)."ARCHITECTURE vi. Safavid to Qajar Periods".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. II. pp. 345–349.Safavid inscriptions on the pre Islamic monuments (e.g., Persepolis and Bīsotūn) perhaps presage that wholesale adoption of and identification with ancient Iran that later characterized the Qajars, but there are not enough inscriptions to clinch the point. (...) An unexpected burst of activity in secular architecture marks the 17th century. Bridges which have wider functions than carrying traffic were built, reviving Sasanian custom (...). (...) Qajar decoration is usually unmistakable. Simple, rather strident tiled geometric or epigraphic designs in small glazed bricks were especially popular. The repertory of cuerda seca tiles now included episodes from the epic and legendary past, portraits of Europeans, scenes from modern life, and the country's heraldic blazon of the lion and the sun (...). Pavilions and palaces bore figural paintings which revived Sasanian royal iconography (Negārestān palace, Tehran) or betrayed the influence of European illustrated magazines or painted postcards depicting landscapes and tourist spots (...).
  79. ^abAmanat, Abbas (22 March 2012)."HISTORIOGRAPHY ix. PAHLAVI PERIOD (1)".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. XII. pp. 377–386.Typical of comparable nationalist historiographies in the early part of the 20th century (e.g., Greek, Italian, Egyptian, and Turkish), the state-sponsored historical narrative under the Pahlavis decidedly favored highlighting the might and glory of the ancient Persian empires, as supported by new archeological and textual evidences. (...) Moreover, promotion of the ancient past as a wholesale propaganda tool in the service of the state engendered nationalistic pride that proved detrimental to dispassionate historical inquiry. (...) The most visible change in the nationalist historiography under Reżā Shah was emphasis on the pre-Islamic, and particularly the Achaemenid, past.
  80. ^abWilber, D. N. (11 August 2011)."ARCHITECTURE vii. Pahlavi, before World War II".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. II. pp. 349–351.
  81. ^Ashraf, Ahmad (24 January 2012)."FĀRS iv. History in the Qajar and Pahlavi Periods".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. IX. pp. 341–351.
  82. ^ab"Subfamily: Farsic".Glottolog.Retrieved1 May2019.
  83. ^"Iran".University of Cambridge. Archived fromthe originalon 18 September 2012.Retrieved16 July2013.
  84. ^Kuhrt 2013,p. 197.
  85. ^Schmitt 2000,p. 53.
  86. ^Kent, R. G. (1950).Old Persian: Grammar Texts Lexicon.American Oriental Society. p. 6.
  87. ^(Schmitt 2008,pp. 80–1)
  88. ^"SociolinguistEssex X – 2005"(PDF).Essex University. 2005. p. 10. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 14 October 2013.Retrieved29 September2013.
  89. ^Gruenberg, Alexander (1966). "Tatskij jazyk". In Vinogradov, V. V. (ed.).Jazyki narodov SSSR.Vol. 1: Indoevropejskie jazyki. pp. 281–301.The Tat language belongs to the Southwest group of Iranian languages and is close in its grammatical structure and lexical content to the Persian and Tajik languages.
  90. ^Khanam, R., ed. (2005).Encyclopaedic Ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia.Vol. 1: P-Z. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 746.The contemporary Tats are the descendants of an Iranian-speaking population sent out of Persia by the dynasty of the Sasanids in the fifth to sixth centuries.
  91. ^Windfuhr, Gernot (1979).Persian Grammar: history and state of its study.Walter de Gruyter. p. 4.(...) Tat- Persian spoken in the East Caucasus (...)
  92. ^Dalby, Andrew (2014).Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 109.ISBN978-1408102145.(...) and Tat (a variety of Persian) (...)
  93. ^Windfuhr, Genot (2013).Iranian Languages.Routledge. p. 417.ISBN978-1135797041.The Northwestern outpost of Persian is Caucasian Tat Persian (...)
  94. ^V. Minorsky, "Tat" in M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., The Encyclopædia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography, Ethnography and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples, 4 vols. and Suppl., Leiden: Late E.J. Brill and London: Luzac, 1913–38. "Like most Persian dialects, Tati is not very regular in its characteristic features (...)".
  95. ^Kerslake, C. (January 2010). "Journal of Islamic Studies".21(1). Oxford University Press (published 4 March 2010): 147–151.It is a comparison of the verbal systems of three varieties of Persian—standard Persian, Tat, and Tajik (...){{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  96. ^Borjian, Habib (2006). "Tabari Language Materials from Il'ya Berezin's Recherches sur les dialectes persans".Iran and the Caucasus.10(2). Brill: 243–258.doi:10.1163/157338406780346005.It embraces Gilani, Ta- lysh, Tabari, Kurdish, Gabri, and the Tati Persian of the Caucasus, all but the last belonging to the north-western group of Iranian language.
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  114. ^Sagar, Krishna Chandra (1992).Foreign Influence on Ancient India.Northern Book Centre. p. 17.ISBN9788172110284.
  115. ^Miller, Margaret Christina (2004).Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity.Cambridge University Press. pp. 243–251.ISBN9780521607582.
  116. ^Skjærvø, Prods Oktor."Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts (2) Documentation".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. XIII. pp. 348–366.Retrieved30 December2012.
  117. ^Marco Bussagli (2005).Understanding Architecture.I.B.Tauris. p. 211.ISBN9781845110895.
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  119. ^Charles Henry Caffin (1917).How to study architecture.Dodd, Mead and Company. p.80.Persian Architecture.
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  124. ^Mary Beach Langton (1904).How to know oriental rugs, a handbook.D. Appleton and Company. pp.57–59.Persian rugs.
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