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Phylum

(Redirected fromPhylum (biology))
For other uses, seePhyla (disambiguation).

Inbiology,aphylum(/ˈfaɪləm/;pl.:phyla) is a level of classification ortaxonomic rankbelowkingdomand aboveclass.Traditionally, inbotanythe termdivisionhas been used instead of phylum, although theInternational Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plantsaccepts the terms as equivalent.[1][2][3]Depending on definitions, the animal kingdomAnimaliacontains about 31 phyla, the plant kingdomPlantaecontains about 14 phyla, and the fungus kingdomFungicontains about eight phyla. Current research inphylogeneticsis uncovering the relationships among phyla within largercladeslikeEcdysozoaandEmbryophyta.

LifeDomainKingdomPhylumClassOrderFamilyGenusSpecies
The hierarchy ofbiological classification's eight majortaxonomic ranks.Akingdomcontains one or more phyla. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.

General description

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The term phylum was coined in 1866 byErnst Haeckelfrom the Greekphylon(φῦλον,"race, stock" ), related tophyle(φυλή,"tribe, clan" ).[4][5]Haeckel noted that species constantly evolved into new species that seemed to retain few consistent features among themselves and therefore few features that distinguished them as a group ( "a self-contained unity" ): "perhaps such a real and completely self-contained unity is the aggregate of all species which have gradually evolved from one and the same common original form, as, for example, all vertebrates. We name this aggregate [a]Stamm[i.e., stock] (Phylon). "[a]Inplant taxonomy,August W. Eichler(1883) classified plants intofive groupsnamed divisions, a term that remains in use today for groups of plants, algae and fungi.[1][6] The definitions of zoological phyla have changed from their origins in the sixLinnaeanclasses and the fourembranchementsofGeorges Cuvier.[7]

Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization ofbody plan.[8]At its most basic, a phylum can be defined in two ways: as a group of organisms with a certain degree of morphological or developmental similarity (thepheneticdefinition), or a group of organisms with a certain degree of evolutionary relatedness (thephylogeneticdefinition).[9]Attempting to define a level of theLinnean hierarchywithout referring to (evolutionary) relatedness is unsatisfactory, but a phenetic definition is useful when addressing questions of a morphological nature—such as how successful different body plans were.[citation needed]

Definition based on genetic relation

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The most important objective measure in the above definitions is the "certain degree" that defines how different organisms need to be members of different phyla. The minimal requirement is that all organisms in a phylum should be clearly more closely related to one another than to any other group.[9]Even this is problematic because the requirement depends on knowledge of organisms' relationships: as more data become available, particularly from molecular studies, we are better able to determine the relationships between groups. So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not. For example, thebearded wormswere described as a new phylum (the Pogonophora) in the middle of the 20th century, but molecular work almost half a century later found them to be a group ofannelids,so the phyla were merged (the bearded worms are now an annelidfamily).[10]On the other hand, the highly parasitic phylumMesozoawas divided into two phyla (OrthonectidaandRhombozoa) when it was discovered the Orthonectida are probablydeuterostomesand the Rhombozoaprotostomes.[11]

This changeability of phyla has led some biologists to call for the concept of a phylum to be abandoned in favour of placing taxa incladeswithout any formal ranking of group size.[9]

Definition based on body plan

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A definition of a phylum based on body plan has been proposed by paleontologistsGraham BuddandSören Jensen(as Haeckel had done a century earlier). The definition was posited because extinct organisms are hardest to classify: they can be offshoots that diverged from a phylum's line before the characters that define the modern phylum were all acquired. By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.

This approach brings some small problems—for instance, ancestral characters common to most members of a phylum may have been lost by some members. Also, this definition is based on an arbitrary point of time: the present. However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record. A greater problem is that it relies on a subjective decision about which groups of organisms should be considered as phyla.

The approach is useful because it makes it easy to classify extinct organisms as "stem groups"to the phyla with which they bear the most resemblance, based only on the taxonomically important similarities.[9]However, proving that a fossil belongs to thecrown groupof a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group.[9]Furthermore, organisms in the stem group of a phylum can possess the "body plan" of the phylum without all the characteristics necessary to fall within it. This weakens the idea that each of the phyla represents a distinct body plan.[12]

A classification using this definition may be strongly affected by the chance survival of rare groups, which can make a phylum much more diverse than it would be otherwise.[13]

Known phyla

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Animals

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Main article:Animal

Total numbers are estimates; figures from different authors vary wildly, not least because some are based on described species,[14]some on extrapolations to numbers of undescribed species. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million.[15]

Protostome Bilateria Nephrozoa
Deuterostome
Basal/disputed Non-Bilateria
Vendobionta
Parazoa
Others
Phylum Meaning Common name Distinguishing characteristic Taxa described
Agmata Fragmented Calcareous conical shells 5 species, extinct
Annelida Little ring[16]: 306  Segmented worms, annelids Multiple circular segments 22,000+ extant
Arthropoda Jointed foot Arthropods Segmented bodies and jointed limbs, withChitinexoskeleton 1,250,000+ extant;[14]20,000+ extinct
Brachiopoda Arm foot[16]: 336  Lampshells[16]: 336  Lophophoreandpedicle 300–500 extant; 12,000+ extinct
Bryozoa(Ectoprocta) Moss animals Moss animals, sea mats, ectoprocts[16]: 332  Lophophore, no pedicle,ciliatedtentacles,anus outside ring of cilia 6,000extant[14]
Chaetognatha Longhair jaw Arrow worms[16]: 342  Chitinousspines either side of head, fins approx.100extant
Chordata With a cord Chordates Hollowdorsal nerve cord,notochord,pharyngeal slits,endostyle,post-analtail approx. 55,000+[14]
Cnidaria Stinging nettle Cnidarians Nematocysts(stinging cells) approx. 16,000[14]
Ctenophora Comb bearer Comb jellies[16]: 256  Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia approx. 100–150 extant
Cycliophora Wheel carrying Circular mouth surrounded by small cilia, sac-like bodies 3+
Echinodermata Spiny skin Echinoderms[16]: 348  Fivefold radialsymmetryin living forms,mesodermalcalcified spines approx. 7,500extant;[14]approx. 13,000 extinct
Entoprocta Insideanus[16]: 292  Goblet worms Anus inside ring of cilia approx. 150
Gastrotricha Hairy stomach[16]: 288  Hairybellies Two terminal adhesive tubes approx. 690
Gnathostomulida Jaw orifice Jaw worms[16]: 260  Tiny worms related to rotifers with no body cavity approx. 100
Hemichordata Half cord[16]: 344  Acorn worms, hemichordates Stomochordin collar,pharyngeal slits approx. 130extant
Kinorhyncha Motion snout Mud dragons Eleven segments, each with a dorsal plate approx. 150
Loricifera Armourbearer Brush heads Umbrella-like scales at each end approx. 122
Micrognathozoa Tiny jaw animals Accordion-like extensiblethorax 1
Mollusca Soft[16]: 320  Mollusks/molluscs Muscular foot andmantleround shell 85,000+ extant;[14]80,000+ extinct[17]
Monoblastozoa
(Nomen inquirendum) 		One sprout animals distinct anterior/posterior parts and being densely ciliated, especially around the "mouth" and "anus". 1
Nematoda Thread like Roundworms, threadworms, eelworms, nematodes[16]: 274  Round cross section,keratincuticle 25,000[14]
Nematomorpha Thread form[16]: 276  Horsehair worms, Gordian worms[16]: 276  Long, thin parasitic worms closely related to nematodes approx. 320
Nemertea A sea nymph[16]: 270  Ribbon worms[16]: 270  Unsegmented worms, with a proboscis housed in a cavity derived from the coelom called the rhynchocoel approx. 1,200
Onychophora Claw bearer Velvet worms[16]: 328  Worm-like animal with legs tipped by chitinous claws approx. 200extant
Orthonectida Straight swimmer Parasitic, microscopic, simple, wormlike organisms 20
Petalonamae Shaped like leaves An extinct phylum from the Ediacaran. They are bottom-dwelling and immobile, shaped like leaves (frondomorphs), feathers or spindles. 3 classes, extinct
Phoronida Zeus's mistress Horseshoe worms U-shaped gut 11
Placozoa Plate animals Trichoplaxes, placozoans[16]: 242  Differentiated top and bottom surfaces, two ciliated cell layers, amoeboid fiber cells in between 4+
Platyhelminthes Flat worm[16]: 262  Flatworms[16]: 262  Flattened worms with no body cavity. Many are parasitic. approx. 29,500[14]
Porifera Pore bearer Sponges[16]: 246  Perforated interior wall, simplest of all known animals 10,800extant[14]
Priapulida LittlePriapus Penis worms Penis-shaped worms approx. 20
Proarticulata Before articulates An extinct group of mattress-like organisms that display "glide symmetry." Found during the Ediacaran. 3 classes, extinct
Dicyemida Lozenge animal Singleanteroposterioraxialcelledendoparasites, surrounded by ciliated cells 100+
Rotifera Wheel bearer Rotifers[16]: 282  Anterior crown of cilia approx. 3,500[14]
Saccorhytida Saccus: "pocket" and "wrinkle" Saccorhytusis only about 1 mm (1.3 mm) in size and is characterized by a spherical or hemispherical body with a prominent mouth. Its body is covered by a thick but flexible cuticle. It has a nodule above its mouth. Around its body are 8 openings in a truncated cone with radial folds. Considered to be a deuterostome[18]or an earlyecdysozoan.[19] 2 species, extinct
Tardigrada Slow step Water bears, moss piglets Microscopic relatives of the arthropods, with a four segmented body and head 1,000
Trilobozoa Three-lobed animal Trilobozoans A taxon of mostly discoidal organisms exhibiting tricentric symmetry. All are Ediacaran-aged 18 genera, extinct
Vetulicolia Ancient dweller Vetulicolians Might possibly be a subphylum of the chordates. Their body consists of two parts: a large front part and covered with a large "mouth" and a hundred round objects on each side that have been interpreted as gills or openings near the pharynx. Their posterior pharynx consists of 7 segments. 15 species, extinct
Xenacoelomorpha Strange hollow form Xenacoelomorphs Small, simple animals.Bilaterian,but lacking typical bilaterian structures such as gut cavities, anuses, and circulatory systems[20] 400+
Total: 39 1,525,000[14]

Plants

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Main article:Plant

The kingdom Plantae is defined in various ways by different biologists (seeCurrent definitions of Plantae). All definitions include the livingembryophytes(land plants), to which may be added the two green algae divisions,ChlorophytaandCharophyta,to form the cladeViridiplantae.The table below follows the influential (though contentious)Cavalier-Smith systemin equating "Plantae" withArchaeplastida,[21]a group containing Viridiplantae and the algalRhodophytaandGlaucophytadivisions.

The definition and classification of plants at the division level also varies from source to source, and has changed progressively in recent years. Thus some sources place horsetails in division Arthrophyta and ferns in division Monilophyta,[22]while others place them both in Monilophyta, as shown below. The division Pinophyta may be used for allgymnosperms(i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes),[23]or for conifers alone as below.

Since the first publication of theAPG systemin 1998, which proposed a classification ofangiospermsup to the level oforders,many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal clades. Where formal ranks have been provided, the traditional divisions listed below have been reduced to a very much lower level, e.g.subclasses.[24]

Land plants Viridiplantae
Green algae
Other algae (Biliphyta)[21]
Division Meaning Common name Distinguishing characteristics Species described
Anthocerotophyta[25] Anthoceros-like plants Hornworts Horn-shapedsporophytes,no vascular system 100–300+
Bryophyta[25] Bryum-like plants, moss plants Mosses Persistent unbranchedsporophytes,no vascular system approx. 12,000
Charophyta Chara-like plants Charophytes approx. 1,000
Chlorophyta (Yellow-)green plants[16]: 200  Chlorophytes approx. 7,000
Cycadophyta[26] Cycas-like plants, palm-like plants Cycads Seeds, crown of compound leaves approx. 100–200
Ginkgophyta[27] Ginkgo-like plants Ginkgophytes Seeds not protected by fruit only 1extant; 50+ extinct
Glaucophyta Blue-green plants Glaucophytes 15
Gnetophyta[28] Gnetum-like plants Gnetophytes Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels approx. 70
Lycophyta[29] Lycopodium-like plants

Wolf plants

Clubmosses Microphyllleaves,vascular system 1,290extant
Angiospermae Seed container Flowering plants, angiosperms Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels 300,000
Marchantiophyta,[30]

Hepatophyta[25]

Marchantia-like plants

Liver plants

Liverworts Ephemeral unbranchedsporophytes,no vascular system approx. 9,000
Polypodiophyta Polypodium-like plants
 Ferns Megaphyllleaves,vascular system approx. 10,560
Picozoa Extremely small animals Picozoans, picobiliphytes 1
Pinophyta,[23]

Coniferophyta[31]

Pinus-like plants

Cone-bearing plant

Conifers Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids 629extant
Prasinodermophyta Prasinoderma-like plants Picozoans, picobiliphytes, biliphytes 8
Rhodophyta Rose plants Red algae Usephycobiliproteinsasaccessory pigments. approx. 7,000
Total: 14

Fungi

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Main article:Fungi
Division Meaning Common name Distinguishing characteristics Species described
Ascomycota Bladder fungus[16]: 396  Ascomycetes,[16]: 396 sac fungi Tend to have fruiting bodies (ascocarp).[32]Filamentous, producing hyphae separated by septa. Can reproduce asexually.[33] 30,000
Basidiomycota Small base fungus[16]: 402  Basidiomycetes,[16]: 402 club fungi Bracket fungi, toadstools, smuts and rust. Sexual reproduction.[34] 31,515
Blastocladiomycota Offshoot branch fungus[35] Blastoclads Less than 200
Chytridiomycota Little cooking pot fungus[36] Chytrids Predominantly Aquaticsaprotrophicor parasitic. Have a posteriorflagellum.Tend to be single celled but can also be multicellular.[37][38][39] 1000+
Glomeromycota Ball of yarn fungus[16]: 394  Glomeromycetes,AMfungi[16]: 394  Mainly arbuscular mycorrhizae present, terrestrial with a small presence on wetlands. Reproduction is asexual but requires plant roots.[34] 284
Microsporidia Small seeds[40] Microsporans[16]: 390  1400
Neocallimastigomycota New beautiful whip fungus[41] Neocallimastigomycetes Predominantly located in digestive tract of herbivorous animals. Anaerobic, terrestrial and aquatic.[42] approx. 20[43]
Zygomycota Pair fungus[16]: 392  Zygomycetes[16]: 392  Most are saprobes and reproduce sexually and asexually.[42] approx. 1060
Total: 8

Phylum Microsporidia is generally included in kingdom Fungi, though its exact relations remain uncertain,[44]and it is considered aprotozoanby the International Society of Protistologists[45](seeProtista,below). Molecular analysis of Zygomycota has found it to bepolyphyletic(its members do not share an immediate ancestor),[46]which is considered undesirable by many biologists. Accordingly, there is a proposal to abolish the Zygomycota phylum. Its members would be divided between phylum Glomeromycota and four new subphylaincertae sedis(of uncertain placement):Entomophthoromycotina,Kickxellomycotina,Mucoromycotina,andZoopagomycotina.[44]

Protists

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Main article:Taxonomy of Protista

KingdomProtista(or Protoctista) is included in the traditional five- or six-kingdom model, where it can be defined as containing alleukaryotesthat are not plants, animals, or fungi.[16]: 120 Protista is aparaphyletictaxon,[47]which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past. Proposals have been made to divide it among several new kingdoms, such asProtozoaandChromistain theCavalier-Smith system.[48]

Protist taxonomy has long been unstable,[49]with different approaches and definitions resulting in many competing classification schemes. Many of the phyla listed below are used by theCatalogue of Life,[50]and correspond to the Protozoa-Chromista scheme,[45]with updates from the latest (2022) publication byCavalier-Smith.[51]Other phyla are used commonly by other authors, and are adapted from the system used by the International Society of Protistologists (ISP). Some of the descriptions are based on the 2019 revision of eukaryotes by the ISP.[52]

Stramenopiles "Chromista"
Alveolata
Rhizaria
"Hacrobia"
"Sarcomastigota" "Protozoa"
"Excavata"
Orphan groups
Phylum Meaning Common name Distinguishing characteristics Species described Image
Amoebozoa Amorphous animals Amoebozoans Presence ofpseudopodiaforamoeboidmovement, tubularcristae.[52] approx. 2,400[53]
Apicomplexa Apical infolds[54] Apicomplexans, sporozoans Mostly parasitic, at least one stage of the life cycle with flattened subpellicular vesicles and a complete apical complex, non-photosyntheticapicoplast.[52] over 6,000[54]
Apusozoa
(paraphyletic) 		Apusomonas-like animals Glidingbiciliateswith two or three connectors betweencentrioles 32
Bigyra Two rings Stramenopileswith a double helix in ciliary transition zone
Cercozoa Flagellated animal Cercozoans Defined bymolecular phylogeny,lacking distinctive morphological or behavioural characters.[52]
Chromerida Chromera-like organisms Chrompodellids, chromerids, colpodellids[55] Biflagellates, chloroplasts with four membranes, incomplete apical complex, cortical alveoli, tubular cristae.[52] 8[56]
Choanozoa
(paraphyletic) 		Funnel animals[16] Opisthokont protists Filose pseudopods;some with acolar of microvillisurrounding aflagellum approx. 300[53]
Ciliophora Cilia bearers Ciliates Presence of multiple cilia and acytostome. approx. 4,500[57]
Cryptista Hidden[16] Defined bymolecular phylogeny,flat cristae.[52] 246[56][52]
Dinoflagellata Whirling flagellates[16] Dinoflagellates Biflagellates with a transverse ribbon-like flagellum with multiple waves beating to the cell’s left and a longitudinal flagellum beating posteriorly with only one or few waves.[52] 2,957extant
955 fossil[56]
Endomyxa Within mucus[16][58] Defined bymolecular phylogeny,[52]typically plasmodial endoparasites of other eukaryotes.[58]
Eolouka
(paraphyletic) 		Early groove[59] Heterotrophic biflagellates with ventral feeding groove.[59] 23
Euglenozoa True eye animals Biflagellates, one of the twociliainserted into an apical or subapical pocket, unique ciliary configuration.[52] 2,037extant
20 fossil[56]
Ochrophyta,
Heterokontophyta 		Ochreplants, heterokont plants Heterokont algae, stramenochromes, ochrophytes, heterokontophytes Biflagellates with tripartite mastigonemes, chloroplasts with four membranes and chlorophyllsaandc,tubular cristae.[52] 21,052extant
2,262 fossil[56]
Haptista Fasten[16] Thinmicrotubule-based appendages for feeding (haptonema inhaptophytes,axopodiaincentrohelids), complex mineralized scales.[52] 517extant
1,205 fossil[56]
Hemimastigophora Incomplete or atypical flagellates[60] Hemimastigotes[61] Ellipsoid or vermiform phagotrophs, two slightly spiraling rows of around 12 cilia each, thecal plates below the membrane supported by microtubules and rotationally symmetrical, tubular and saccular cristae.[52][60] 10[62]
Malawimonada Malawimonas-like organisms Malawimonads Small free-living bicilates with two kinetosomes, one or two vanes in posterior cilium. 3[63]
Metamonada Middlemonads Metamonads Anaerobicormicroaerophilic,some withoutmitochondria;fourkinetosomesperkinetid
Opisthosporidia
(often consideredfungi) 		Opisthokontspores[64] Parasites withchitinoussporesand extrusive host-invasion apparatus
Percolozoa Percolomonas-like animals Complexlife cyclecontaining amoebae, flagellates andcysts.[52]
Perkinsozoa Perkinsus-like animals Perkinsozoans, perkinsids Parasitic biflagellates, incomplete apical complex, formation of zoosporangia or undifferentiated cells via a hypha-like tube.[52] 26
Provora Devouring voracious protists[65] Defined bymolecular phylogeny,free-living eukaryovorous heterotrophic biflagellates with ventral groove and extrusomes.[65] 7[65]
Pseudofungi False fungi Defined bymolecular phylogeny,phagotrophic heterokonts with a helical ciliary transition zone.[66] over 1,200[67]
Retaria Reticulopodia-bearing organisms[58] Feeding byreticulopodia(oraxopodia) typically projected through various types of skeleton, closed mitosis.[68] 10,000extant
50,000 fossil
Sulcozoa
(paraphyletic) 		Groove-bearing animals[59] Aerobicflagellates (none, 1, 2 or 4 flagella) with dorsal semi-rigid pellicle of one or two submembrane dense layers, ventral feeding groove, branching ventral pseudopodia, typically filose.[59] 40+
Telonemia Telonema-like organisms[69] Telonemids[70] Phagotrophicpyriform biflagellates with a unique complex cytoskeleton, tubular cristae, tripartite mastigonemes, cortical alveoli.[69][70] 7
Total: 26,but see below.

The number of protist phyla varies greatly from one classification to the next. The Catalogue of Life includesRhodophytaandGlaucophytain kingdom Plantae,[50]but other systems consider these phyla part of Protista.[71]In addition, less popular classification schemes uniteOchrophytaandPseudofungiunder one phylum,Gyrista,and all alveolates exceptciliatesin one phylumMyzozoa,later lowered in rank and included in a paraphyletic phylumMiozoa.[51]Even within a phylum, other phylum-level ranks appear, such as the case ofBacillariophyta(diatoms) withinOchrophyta.These differences became irrelevant after the adoption of acladisticapproach by the ISP, where taxonomic ranks are excluded from the classifications after being considered superfluous and unstable. Many authors prefer this usage, which lead to the Chromista-Protozoa scheme becoming obsolete.[52]

Bacteria

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Main article:Bacterial phyla

Currently there are 40 bacterial phyla (not including "Cyanobacteria") that have been validly published according to theBacteriological Code[72]

  1. Abditibacteriota
  2. Acidobacteriota,phenotypically diverse and mostly uncultured
  3. Actinomycetota,High-G+C Gram positive species
  4. Aquificota,deep-branching
  5. Armatimonadota
  6. Atribacterota
  7. Bacillota,Low-G+C Gram positive species, such as the spore-formersBacilli(aerobic) andClostridia(anaerobic)
  8. Bacteroidota
  9. Balneolota
  10. Bdellovibrionota
  11. Caldisericota,formerly candidate division OP5,Caldisericum exileis the sole representative
  12. Calditrichota
  13. Campylobacterota
  14. Chlamydiota
  15. Chlorobiota,green sulphur bacteria
  16. Chloroflexota,green non-sulphur bacteria
  17. Chrysiogenota,only 3 genera (Chrysiogenes arsenatis,Desulfurispira natronophila,Desulfurispirillum alkaliphilum)
  18. Coprothermobacterota
  19. Deferribacterota
  20. Deinococcota,Deinococcus radioduransandThermus aquaticusare "commonly known" species of this phyla
  21. Dictyoglomota
  22. Elusimicrobiota,formerly candidate division Thermite Group 1
  23. Fibrobacterota
  24. Fusobacteriota
  25. Gemmatimonadota
  26. Ignavibacteriota
  27. Kiritimatiellota
  28. Lentisphaerota,formerly clade VadinBE97
  29. Mycoplasmatota,notable genus:Mycoplasma
  30. Myxococcota
  31. Nitrospinota
  32. Nitrospirota
  33. Planctomycetota
  34. Pseudomonadota,the most well-known phylum, containing species such asEscherichia coliorPseudomonas aeruginosa
  35. Rhodothermota
  36. Spirochaetota,species includeBorrelia burgdorferi,which causes Lyme disease
  37. Synergistota
  38. Thermodesulfobacteriota
  39. Thermomicrobiota
  40. Thermotogota,deep-branching
  41. Verrucomicrobiota

Archaea

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Main article:Archaea

Currently there are 2 phyla that have been validly published according to theBacteriological Code[72]

  1. Nitrososphaerota
  2. Thermoproteota,second most common archaeal phylum

Other phyla that have been proposed, but not validly named, include:

  1. "Euryarchaeota",most common archaeal phylum
  2. "Korarchaeota"
  3. "Nanoarchaeota",ultra-small symbiotes, single known species

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^"Wohl aber ist eine solche reale und vollkommen abgeschlossene Einheit die Summe aller Species, welche aus einer und derselben gemeinschaftlichen Stammform allmählig sich entwickelt haben, wie z. B. alle Wirbelthiere. Diese Summe nennen wir Stamm (Phylon)."

References

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  1. ^abMcNeill, J.; et al., eds. (2012).International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code), Adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011(electronic ed.). International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Archived fromthe originalon 10 October 2020.Retrieved14 May2017.
  2. ^"Life sciences".The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy(third ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005.Retrieved4 October2008.Phyla in the plant kingdom are frequently called divisions.
  3. ^Berg, Linda R. (2 March 2007).Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment(2 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 15.ISBN9780534466695.Retrieved23 July2012.
  4. ^Valentine 2004,p. 8.
  5. ^Haeckel, Ernst (1866).Generelle Morphologie der Organismen[The General Morphology of Organisms] (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin, (Germany): G. Reimer. pp.28–29.
  6. ^Naik, V. N. (1984).Taxonomy of Angiosperms.Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 27.ISBN9780074517888.
  7. ^Collins AG, Valentine JW (2001)."Defining phyla: evolutionary pathways to metazoan body plans".Evolution and Development.3:432–442. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 April 2020.Retrieved5 March2013.
  8. ^Valentine, James W. (2004).On the Origin of Phyla.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 7.ISBN978-0-226-84548-7.Classifications of organisms in hierarchical systems were in use by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Usually, organisms were grouped according to their morphological similarities as perceived by those early workers, and those groups were then grouped according to their similarities, and so on, to form a hierarchy.
  9. ^abcdeBudd, G. E.; Jensen, S. (May 2000)."A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla".Biological Reviews.75(2): 253–295.doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00046.x.PMID10881389.S2CID39772232.Archived fromthe originalon 15 September 2019.Retrieved26 May2007.
  10. ^Rouse, G. W. (2001)."A cladistic analysis of Siboglinidae Caullery, 1914 (Polychaeta, Annelida): formerly the phyla Pogonophora and Vestimentifera".Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.132(1): 55–80.doi:10.1006/zjls.2000.0263.
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